IC-NRLF 


T  D 


. 


1 1 ', 


r 


REESE  LIBRARY 

OK  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived  ,  igo     . 

Accession  No.      82624     .    Class  No. 


MUNICIPAL  PUBLIC  WORKS 


A  DISCUSSION 
OF  MATTERS 
OF  INTEREST 
to  MUNICIPAL 
OFFICIALS 


By      ERNEST 
McCULLOUGH 


ERNEST    M'CULLOUGH 


LEWISTON,    IDAHO 


MUNICIPAL  PUBLIC  WORKS 


AN 

ELEMENTARY  MANUAL 

OF 

MUNICIPAL  ENGINEERING 

BY 

ERNEST  M'CULLOUGH,  C 


Country  Roads;  Farm  Drainage;  Topographical 
Surveying;  The  Vrooman  Act;  etc,,  etc. 


19QO 

A.  S.  ALOE  COMPANY, 

ST.  LOUIS. 


, 


COPYRIGHT  1900 
by  Ernest  McCuIlough. 


LEWISTON,  IDAHO: 

THE  DAILY  TELLER  PRINT. 

WOO. 


This  Work  is 

Atfectionately  Dedicated    to 
MY  FATHER. 


BEESE 


82624 


IN     PREPARATION.       WILL     BE 
ISSUED   SHORTLY.     COPY- 
RIGHTED   1900. 


A  MANUAL  OF 

MUNICIPAL 

ENGINEERING 


With  Especial  Reference  to  Field   Work 
and  Office  Records,   and  Mainte- 
nance of  Public  Works 
FOR    CITY  ENGINEERS  AND  STUDENTS 


BY  ERNEST  M'CULLOUGH. 


Svo  ABOUT  300  PAGES. 
CUTS,  TABLES,  DIA- 
GRAMS. CLOTH  $3.00 


TA  BLE  OF  CONTENTS 

W  0   «   W 


CHAPTER  I.     Concerning  Streets. 


CHAPTER  II.     Drainage  and  Sewerage. 

CHAPTER  III.     Water  Supply. 

CHAPTER  IV.     Street  Lighting  and  Fire  Department 

CHAPTER  V.     Plans  and  Surveys. 

CHAPTER  VI.     Municipal  Ownership. 

CHAPTER  VII.     The  City  Engineer. 


PREFACE  TO  "PUBLIC  WORKS." 

The  following  articles  were  written  for  the  trus- 
tees of  a  California  town,  the  intention  being  to 
discuss  from  an  engineer's  standpoint,  the  various 
problems  with  which  the  trustees  would  have  to 
deal.  As  the  subjects  of  municipal  ownership  and 
bonds  are  economic  propositions  it  has  been  con* 
sidered  that  there  is  nothing  amiss  in  an  engineer 
having  his  say  about  them. 

In  the  r^elief  that  many  municipal  officers  would 
appreciate  the  work  the  articles  are  now  published. 
It  is  hoped  they  may  prove  useful  to  some. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Sept.  1894. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

There  still  exists  an  inquiry  for  the  little  work 
which  met  with  a  reception  so  gratifying  to  the 
author  and  as  the  book  is  out  of  print  it  has  been 
entirely  re-written  in  this  new  edition  and  the  title 
changed  to  better  express  the  character  of  the  work. 

The  number  of  pages  has  been  more  than  doubled 
and  a  few  illustrations  added.  Chapter  IV.  is  en- 
tirely new.  Chapter  V.  containe  the  gist  of  the 
matter  in  the  former  Chapters  V.,  VI.,  VII.  Chap- 
ter VI.  contains  practically  all  that  was  in  the  for- 
mer Chapters  VIII.  and  IX.  together  with  much 
new  matter — but  the  opinion  of  the  author  on  muni- 
cipal ownership  has  undergone  no  change  in  six 
years  although  he  has  altered  his  ideas  on  many 
other  points. 

Chapter  VII.  has  been  written  for  the  engineers 
of  small  towns,  who  were  the  most  appreciative  and 
numerous  purchasers  of  the  former  edition,  and  con- 
tains much  of  the  matter  .given  in  Chapters  V.,  VI. 
and  VII.  of  the  first  edition,  together  with  new 
matter  of  interest  to  engineers  only. 

The  book  however  is  not  written  for  engineers  but 
for  non-technical  readers  for  whom  it  may  be  a 
primer  in  municipal  engineering.  The  subjects 
discussed  come  under  the  jurisdiction  and  control  of 
thousands  of  men  annually  elected  by  their  fellow- 
citizens  to  positions  of  trust  and  honor,  but  who  gen- 
erally are  not  well  enough  acquainted  with  such  mat- 
ters to  deal  intelligently  with  them. 

Lewiston,  Idaho,  June  1900. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


WATER  TANK  WITH  STEEL  TOWEtf 
Cut  loaned  by  the  W.  E,  Caldwel!  Co.,  Louisville.  Ky 


MUNICIPAL    PUBLIC    WORKS 


OP   THB 

UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  I. 

CONCERNING    Perhaps  a  logical  method  of  treat- 

STREETS.         ing  the  subject  of  streets  would  be 

to  commence  with  the  laying  off  of 

the  town,  next  take   up    the    subject   of  grades  and 

then  discuss  the  various  methods    of   improvement, 

commencing  with  the   cheapest,    and    thus   step    by 

step  parallel  the  steps  taken  in  the    improvement  of 

the  thoroughfares  of  a  city. 

But  the  streets  have  already  been  laid  out.  The 
cupidity  of  the  owners  of  the  land  or  the  advice  of 
the  real  estate  agent  fixed  the  lines.  The  grades 
were  perhaps  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The 
question  of  getting  out  of  the  mud  in  winter  and 
the  dust  in  summer  concern  the  people  far  more 
than  anything  else  at  the  time  we  step  in  to  advise 
on  the  subject  of  "fixing  up"  the  streets.  There- 
fore the  truly  logical  method  is  to  commence  with 
materials  and  say  a  few  words  later  about  grades 
and  lines. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  street  paving  as  in  all  other 
work  that  the  material  cheapest  in  first  cost  is  the 
most  expensive  in  the  cost  of  maintenance.  There- 
fore when  improving  a  street  get  the  best  pavement 
which  the  taxpayers  can  afford.  But  it  is  some- 
times cheaper  to  put  down  something  to  be  replaced 


12 


later  by  the  best  rather  than  wait  indefinitely  for 
improvement.  A  first-class  pavement  may  mean 
bankruptcy  to  many  property  owners  and  the  effect 
be  to  retard  improvement  and  thus  delay  the  pro- 
gress of  a  town,  while  a  cheaper4  pavement  would 
arouse  enthusiasm  and  cause  many  other  parts  of 
town  to  be  improved. 

It  is  easy  to  generalize  and  easy  to  give  the  ex- 
perience of  other  cities.  The  average  taxpayer  will 
not  take  any  other  person's  word,  but  will  judge  for 
himself  when  it  comes  to  spending  money  for  im- 
provements. If  a  desire  for  improvement  is  mani- 
fested it  is  a  wise  lot  of  City  Fathers  who  will  allow 
the  property  owners,  to  be  taxed  for  an  improve- 
ment, to  vote  on  the  material  to  be  used.  Of  course 
it  is  premised  that  an  endeavor  has  first  been  made 
to  educate  the  property  owners  on  the  merits  of  the 
various  materials  and  then  if  a  mistake  is  made  "I 
told  you  so"  is  a  sweet  remark  to  repeat  a  few  times 
later  on.  But  rather  than  kill  the  desire  for  im- 
provements by  advocating  high  priced  pavements 
remember  the  German  proverb  "best  kills  better," 
and  seek  merely  for  improvement  until  conditions 
render  perfection  possible. 

Away  from  cities  with  good  railroad  cornmumca- 
tions  the  question  of  material  is  entirely  local. 
Where  one  material  can  be  laid  down  as  cheaply  as 
another  the  fancy,  of  the  individual  may  be  indulged 
and  the  city  streets  be  a  patchwork  if  the  people 
vote  that  way.  But  when  freight  rates  are  high 
and  first-class  material  is  imported  at  great  cost  the 
question  is  a  burning  one.  This  should  be  remem- 


13 

bered  in  reading  articles  on  paving  in  magazines 
and  other  publications.  The  writer  in  New  York 
or  London  cannot  settle  the  matter  nearly  as  well 
for  the  people  of  Timbuctoo  as  the  people  of  Tim- 
buctoo  can  themselves  after  they  have  had  some  lit- 
tle education  and  have  a  slight  idea  of  the  compara- 
tive merits  of  all  materials  used.  A  little  knowl- 
edge is  a  dangerous  thing  and  the  little  knowledge  * 


AN  ASPHALT  STREET 


possessed  by  the  average  citizen  on  the  subject  of 
paving  has  been  responsible  for  the  mis-spending, 
stealing  and  otherwise  wasting  of  millions  of  dollars 
of  good  money  on  worthless  pavements.  Still  every 
citizen  believes  he  knows  all  that  is  to  be  known  on 
the  subject  after  a  hasty  jaunt  through  a  few  cities. 
And  the  little  knowledge  possessed  by  many  City 
Fathers  (obtained  at  large  cost  to  the  taxpayers  by 


14 

jaunting  trips — investigating  tours,  save  the  mark) 
has  proven  dangerous  alike  to  the  purses,  streets 
and  consciences  of  the  people.  But  a  little — a  very 
little — more  knowledge  may  be  useful  and  saving. 
"It  is  n<  t  knowledge,"  said  the  wise  old  bishop  of 
Canterbury,  "that  makes  a  man  conceited,  but  the 
want  of  it." 

Gravel  is  the  first  thing  tried.  There  is  one  kind 
which  is  very  fine  and  has  sharp  edges.  It  is  not 
rounded  like  marbles  and  cobblestones  and  is  pretty 
good  material  to  use  on  streets  with  little  travel. 
But  it  is  the  most  expensive  form  of  improvement 
which  the  taxpayer  can  fool  with.  If 
rounded  river  gravel  is  used  there  is  no  improve- 
ment at  all.  When  stone  is  used  it  should  pack 
and  bind  by  reason  of  the  corners  and  angles  inter- 
locking and  preventing  a  movement.  But  if  the 
stone  have  rounded  sides  and  there  are  no  angles 
and  corners  it  must  hold  together  by  some  binder  or 
cementing  material.  If  this  cementing  material 
sets  and  never  softens,  as  in  the  case  of  cement, 
then  there  can  be  no  objection.  But  if  it  is  a  clay 
or  earth  which  will  soften  when  wet  the  stone  gets 
a  chance  to  move  around  and  the  larger  ones  work 
to  the  top  by  reason  of  the  smaller  ones  sliding 
under  first  one  side  and  then  the  other,  the  cement- 
ing material  acting  as  a  lubricant.  Yet  many  peo- 
ple use  gravel  and  advocate  its  use  because  "it  will 
let  the  water  through."  This  after  a  century  of 
education  in  roadmaking. 

It  is  well  and  highly  desirable  that   the   earth   on 
which  the  road  metalling  rests  should  be  porous  and 


15 

-easily  drained,  but  the  -endeavor  of  the  road  engi- 
neer is  to  get  an  impervious  covering  which  is 
termed  "metalling"  when  composed  of  gravel,  cin- 
ders, stone,  etc.,  and  which  is  termed  apaving"  when 
composed  of  something  more  durable  and  neater.  If 
the  edged  gravel  can  be  obtained  easily  and  at  a  low 
cost  it  may  be  used  by  placing  it  on  the  road  in 
layers  of  from  two  to  three  inches  in  thickness  and 
covering  it  an  inch  deep  with  sand.  Then  wet  it 
and  roll  it  thoroughly.  It  cannot  be  rolled  to  much. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  make  the  total  thickness  much 
over  six  inches.  The  foundation  should  be  well 
compacted  before  the  gravel  is  put  on. 

The  only  way  to  use  rounded  gravel  is  to  put  it 
through  a  rock  crusher  and  when  it  gets  through 
call  it  macadam  and  put  it  on  the  road  in  accord* 
ance  with  the  best  possible  specifications  for  mac- 
adamizing.  It  may  be  pretty  good  then.  And  this 
brings  us  to  macadamizing,  one  step  farther  in  street 
improvement. 

It  is  an  old  story  how  MacAdam  went  through 
England  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  and  reno- 
vated the  roads  of  that  country.  How  he  took  the 
roads  which  annually  had  enough  broken  stone  and 
gravel  dumped  in  to  make  them  good  and  yet  with 
each  load  became  worse,  and  fished  the  stone  out  of 
the  mire  and  mud  and  cracked  it  into  small  pieces 
and  put  it  back  again  properly.  How  he  became 
famous  and  his  roads  became  famous  because  he 
possessed  a  vast  amount  of  common  sense.  Hence 
it  is  that  streets  and  roads  improved  by  placing  on 
them  regular  layers  of  broken  stone  thoroughly 


i6 

rolled,  are  said  to  be  macadamized.  Mac  Adam 
placed  the  stone  on  the  natural  earth  after  rolling  it 
until  it  was  hard.  Another  method  called  Telford, 
after  the  engineer  of  that  name,  is  to  excavate  the 
road  some  depth  and  roughly  pave  it  with  large 
stone  to  form  a  foundation.  Then  on  this  founda- 
tion place  the  crushed  rock  (broken  stone)  in  regu- 
lar layers  well  rolled.  As  to  which  method  to 
adopt  local  considerations  must  influence. 

When  the  gravel  has  been  tired  of  and  a  better 
pavement  or  covering  for  the  street  is  desired  the 
question  of  material  is  agitated.  It  is  first  necessary 
to  decide  between  macadam  or  something  else.  The 
arguments  for  macadam  are  few  when  its  use  in  a 
city  is  considered.  It  is  cheap  in  price,  that  ,is 
first  cost;  is  low,  but  expense  of  maintenance  high, 
though  not  so  high  as  gravel.  It  is  a  good  hing 
when  the  people  are  unable  to  pay  for  anything  bet 
ter  or  think  they  are  unable  to  pay  for  anything 
better.  Properly  made  it  should  be  several  hund- 
red per  cent,  better  than  the  best  maintained  earth 
or  gravel  road  and  can  be  kept  fairly  good  looking 
under  considerable  travel.  Sometimes  it  is  an 
excellent  thing  to  commence  improving  the  streets 
with  and  when  worn  down  to  a  thickness  of  six  or 
eight  inches  it  can  be  cleaned  off  and  a  covering  of 
good  pavement  laid  on  it.  Though  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  such  event  if  any  openings 
are  made  in  it  for  sewer  or  gas  or  water  connections 
the  pavement  can  never  be  replaced  over  the  cut 
and  kept  in  good  shape  afterwards.  To  replace  the 
material  the  earth  should  be  well  tamped  back  in 


place  and  a  shoulder  cut  in  the  macadam  around  the 
end  of  the  opening  and  a  concrete  covering  substi- 
tuted at  that  place  instead  of  the  macadam.  If 
there  is  any  sinking  afterward  in  the  trench  the 
concrete  will  prevent  the  pavement  sinking  or  giv- 
ing way.  While  not  possessing  all  the  advantages 
of  a  pavement,  macadam  has  been  fairly  satisfactory 
in  many  places. 

A  good  macadam  street  is  composed  of  broken 
stone  in  three  layers  usually.  The  first  layer 
should  be  half  the  total  thickness  of  the  completed 
job.  It  should  be  covered  with  about  half  an  inch 
of  clear  sand  or  stone  dust  which  should  be  wet  as 
thoroughly  as  possible  and  then  rolled  until  a  nar- 
row tired  wagon  loaded  with  about  a  ton  in  weight 
can  be  hauled  over  it  without  materially  disturbing 
the  surface.  The  stone  in  this  layer  should  not  ex- 
ceed a  four  inch  cube  and  there  should  be  no  fine 
stuff  or  dust  and  the  various  sized  material  should 
be  well  distributed.  The  second  layer  should  be 
composed  of  stones  not  larger  than  a  two  inch  cube 
and  this  layer  should  be  about  one-third  the  total 
thickness  of  the  completed  job.  It  should  be  also 
covered  with  the  half  inch  of  sand  or  rock  dust  and 
rolled  as  the  first  one.  The  third  layer  should  com- 
plete the  job  and  be  composed  of  stone  running 
from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  cube,  the  larger  size 
predominating.  This  should  be  covered  with  an 
inch  of  sand,  not  rock  dust,  and  thoroughly  wet  and 
rolled  until  the  surface  is  harcT  and  smooth. 

For  repairs  the  city  should  own  a  rock  crushing 
plant  and  road  roller,  for  no  street  lasts  -forever. 


i8 

The  ustitcli  in  time"  method  of  repairs  is  the  lest 
and  cheapest.  The  City  of  Lewiston,  Idaho,  re- 
ceived in  May,  1900,  bids  foi  the  following  outfit: 
A  five  ton  reversible  horse  roller,  a  rock  crusher 
with  a  capacity  of  eight  tons  per  hour,  a  twelve 
horse  power  portable  engine  and  a  long  elevator  and 
a  revolving  screen  for  separating  the  different  sizes 
of  stone.  The  bids  ranged  from  $2,473  to  ^3>35°- 
Bids  for  ten  ton  steam  rollers  ranged  from  $2,450  to 
$3,750  laid  down  in  Lewiston.  An  idea  can  thus  be 
had  of  the  possible  cost  o  such  an  outfit.  It  is  an 
advantage  for  a  city  to  own  such  a  plant  and  rent  it 
to  contractors  who  do  work  so  that  by  this  means 
competition  can  be  had  which  will  serve  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  street  work.  This  is  an  encouragement 
for  the  energetic  men  with  small  capital  and  keeps 
money  at  home.  Or  the  city  can  crush  the  stone 
and  sell  it  at  cost  to  the  successful  bidder  besides 
having  all  on  hand  that  is  needed  for  repairs. 
There  are  few  better  investments  for  a  city.  Bven 
after  it  grows  beyond  macadam  the  plant  will  be 
needed  for  concrete. 

A  light  roller — five  tons  at  least — will  do  as  good 
work  as  a  heavy  roller  but  the  material  should  go 
on  in  thinner  layers  and  the  work  takes  longer, 
therefore  the  light  roller  is  the  more  costly  to  use 
A  steam  roller  will  do  more  and  better  work  than  a 
horse  roller  for  the  same  money — in  ordinary  cases. 
But  a  steam  roller  costs  from  five  to  six  times  as 
much  as  a  horse  roller  ^.nd  unless  it  is  pretty  con- 
stantly in  use  is  apt  to  be  a  white  elephant  for  a 
small  town.  It  takes  high  priced  men  to  run  it  and 


19 

such  men  cannot  always  be  obtained  when  needed. 
Unless  it  is  well  housed  and  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
looked  after  when  used  it  will  be  ruined.  If  it 
weighs  more  than  seven  tons  careful  regulation  of 
the  laying  of  water  pipes  is  needed  as  it  is  apt  to 
open  the  joints  if  the  pipes  are  laid  close  to  the  sur- 
face. 

A  horse  roller  should  not  be  less  than  five  tons 
nor  more  than  seven  tons  in  weight,  be  reversible 
and  have  little  wood  work.  A  two  dollar  man  and 
cheap  rented  horses  can  operate  it.  When  through 
with  a  job  the  roller  can  be  left  on  a  vacant  lot  until 
needed  elsewhere  (although  the  writer  does  not  advo- 
cate such  methods  of  dealing  with  machinery). 
When  needed  again  it  requires  only  a  little  greasing 
to  make  it  as  good  as  new. 

For  a  citizen,  or  a  contractor  either,  having  only 
occasional  use  for  a  roller  a  five  or  seven  ton  horse 
roller  is  best.  If  there  is  contant,  or  almost  con- 
stant, use  for  the  roller  then  it  is  a  vain  and  foolish 
and  expensive  thing  to  use  a  horse  roller.  And 
when  getting  a  steam  roller  get  the  heaviest  the 
street  can  stand. 


OTHER        The    considerations  influencing  the 
PAVING        adoption     of    materials   for    paving, 
MATERIALS     apart   from  strictly  local   considera- 
tions, which  we   will   take  up  later, 
are  as  follows.     Appearance,  ease  of  traction,  clean- 
liness,   healthfulness,    noise    and    cost.       A    perfect 
pavement    is    durable,    noiseless,    cleanly,    healthy, 


easy  for  purposes  of  travel  and  cheap.  The  per- 
fect pavement  has  not  yet  been  discovered. 

The  loads  which  a  horse  can  draw  on  a  perfectly 
level  roadway,  each  day  of  ten  hours  is  given  by 
Haswell,  as  follows,  for  the  materials  mentioned: 

Asphalt  6,095  Ibs5  stone  block  3,006  Ibs;  ordinary 
stone  block  1,828  Ibs;  hard  macadam  1,391  Ibs; 
hard  gravel  1,279  ^S5  nal"d  earth  1,193  IDS>  worn 
stone  block  1,137  ^S5  cobble  stone  730  Ibs;  ordinary 
earth  456  Ibs;  sand  228  Ibs.  Brick  is  not  given  but 
it  is  close  to  asphalt. 

The  following  figures  given  by  asphalt  companies 
show  the  comparative  cost  of  haulage  on  streets 
paved  with  various  materials.  There  is  little 
reason  to  doubt  their  close  agreement  with  observa- 
tion even  if  presented  by  parties  advertising  a  par- 
ticular material. 

Cost  to  move  one  ton  one  mile  by  horse  power 
(estimate  made  in  Indiana);  asphalt  2.7  cts;  block 
stone  pavement  (average)  5.3  cts;  macadam  in  good 
order  8.0  cts;  gravel  road  8.8  cts;  earth  road,  hard 
and  dry  18  cts;  macadam  with  ruts  26  cts;  wet  sand 
32  cts;  earth  road  with  ruts  and  mud  39  cts;  dry 
sand  64  cts.  Again  there  is  no  mention  of  brick 
but  it  is  close  to  asplalt. 

Next  there  is  the  question  of  slipperyness  on  pave- 
ments. From  observations  made  in  various  cities 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  and  the  authenticity 
of  which  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  it  is  claimed 
that  on  asphalt  as  now  laid  a  horse  travels  583 
miles  without  falling;  on  granite  block  pavement 
413  miles;  on  basalt  block  pavement  the  same  as 


granite  until  it  gets  smoothed  by  traffic  when  it  be- 
comes extremely  dangerous;  on  wooden  pavement 
272  miles;  on  rock  asphalt  pavement  (which  will  be 
later  mentioned)  70  miles.  No  observations  on 
brick  but  it  should  be  at  least  as  good  as  asphalt  in 
this  particular,  if  not  better  at  some  seasons  of  the 
year  and  when  wet. 

Now  as  to  grades.  Asphalt  should  not  be  laid  on 
very  steep  grades.  Granite  and  basalt  blocks  can 
be  laid  on  about  the  same  grades  as  asphalt.  Wood 
perhaps  a  trifle  steeper  and  brick  on  steeper  than 
wood.  Macadam  can  be  used  on  all  grades. 

As  to  cleanliness.  This  affects  the  health  of  the 
community  and  the  cost  of  keeping  the  streets  clean 
and  in  good  repair,  asphalt  easily  takes  first  rank, 
brick  second,  granite  or  basalt  blocks,  if  grouted 
between  the  joints,  third  place.  If  not  grouted  be- 
tween the  joints  the  stone  blocks  rank  next  to  wood, 
carefully  laid.  Macadam  comes  next  and  last,  for 
earth  and  gravel  roads  are  not  capable  of  being  kept 
clean  in  any  degree.  Macadam  if  swept  regularly 
and  sprinkled  occasionally  and  rolled  once  in  a  while 
can  be  maintained  in  a  condition,  or  state,  several 
degrees  this  side  of  a  nuisance. 

Durability  is  another  question;  as  it  is  closely 
connected  with  noise  they  might  be  considered  to- 
gether. Cobbles  are  the  most  durable,  they  are  an 
antediluvian  pavement  and  can  never  be  made  to 
look  any  better  by  taking  up  and  relaying  so  their 
noise  can  never  be  lessened.  uThe  cars  rattling 
over  the  stony  street"  rattled  over  cobble  pavement. 
They  last  forever  if  the  people  do  not  tire  of  their 


22 

ugliness  and  replace  them  with  something  better. 
Granite  blocks  come  next.  They  are,  as  everyone 
knows,  durable  but  as  they  wear  they  get  noisier 
every  day.  They  can  be  taken  up,  trimmed  and 
relaid  at  times  and  thus  made  a  little  smoother  but 
on  the  whole  they  have  only  one  thing  to  commend 
them — durability.  Basalt  blocks  are  as  durable  as 
granite  but  wear  smooth  much  sooner.  It  has  been 
found  by  actual  experience  that  asphalt  is  about  as 
durable  as  anything  short  of  stone  blocks.  Brick 
comes  next  and  then  wood.  There  are  instances  of 
an  extremely  long  life  on  the  part  of  wooden  blocks. 
Macadam  is  the  least  durable  if  we  except  gravel 
which  is  only  a  bad  makeshift.  Asphalt  is  the 
quietest  and  brick  and  wood  close  competitors  for 
the  second  place  as  regards  noise. 


The  writer  does  not  condemn  rna- 
AVACADAM  cadam  streets  for  a  city.  It  is  good 

with  which  to  start  the  improvement 
ball  rolling  and  gives  fairly  good  service  until  there 
is  considerable  traffic  on  the  street.  Being  so  much 
superior  to  earth  and  gravel  it  is  excellent  for 
streets  with  light  travel  and  for  residence  streets 
and  all  streets  to  be  improved  at  low  first  cost  and 
so  situated  as  to  call  for  little  maintenance  expense 
yearly,  as  for  instances  on  streets  with  steep  grades 
where  better  pavements  would  be  slippery.  The 
stone  used  for  macadam,  and  for  all  concrete  foun- 
dations fcr  other  pavements  should  be  clean,  hard 


23 

and  durable,  free  from  clay  and  dirt,  not  subject  to 
disintegration  by  the  action  of  air  or  water,  and  free 
from  seams  or  marked  lines  of  cleavage.  A  rock 
of  igneous  character  is  best  and  all  rock  should  be 
tested  in  a  rattler.  The  rattler  is  a  box  which  can 
be  partly  filled  with  stone  and  revolved  for  a  certain 
length  of  time  to  test  the  wearing  power  of  the 
stone.  It  is  used  in  many  places  for  testing 
macadam  and  brick  for  pavements  and  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  rattler  used  in  foundries  to  clean  castings. 


Cobbles  are  egg  shaped  pieces  of  gravel 
COBBLES  varying  in  size  from  six  inches  in 

length  and  breadth  to  as  much  as  ten 
inches.  They  are  laid  in  a  bed  of  sand  upon  the 
shaped  street  surface  and  tamped  into  place  with 
heavy  tampers  and  then  covered  with  sand  or  very 
fine  gravel  and  wet  and  rolled.  They  are  an  abom- 
ination. They  are  noisy  and  not  particularly  easy 
to  travel  over.  The  first  cost  is  about  the  same  as 
macadam  but  they  will  wear  forever  with  travel 
which  would  wear  twelve  inches  of  macadam  in  a 
year.  The  interstices  cannot  be  cleaned  and  hence 
cobble  pavement  is  extremely  unsanitary. 


24 


Granite  blorks  are  durable  and  much 

STONE          better  than  cobbles,  which  in  the  pro- 

BLOCKS         cess     of    evolution     they     followed. 

They  are,  or  should  be,  cut  regularly 
to  shape,  and  set  as  closely  as  possible  to  make  the 
joints  small  and  thus  lessen  noise  and  make  them 
more  healthful.  The  question  of  healthfulness  and 
noise  has  been  met  of  late  years  by  filling 
the  joints  with  cement  grout  (which  some- 
times makes  the  pavement  a  difficult  one  on  which 
to  gain  foothold),  or  with  an  asphalt  grout.  The 
joints  being  filled  the  street  can  be  easily  kept  clean. 
Formerly  they  were  laid  like  cobbles  in  a  bed  of 
sand  two  or  three  inches  thick  on  the  natural  earth 
surface.  But  the  difficulty  of  keeping  a  nice  sur- 
face has  led  to  the  placing  of  a  concrete  foundation' 
six  or  eight  inches  thick  over  the  surface  and  plac- 
ing the  blocks  on  that.  Indeed  it  is  this  concrete 
foundation  which  is  the  real  pavement.  The  other 
materials  placed  on  it  are  only  wearing  surfaces  de- 
signed to  protect  it.  When  granite  is  difficult  to 
obtain  it  is  customary  to  use  basalt.  With  the  ex- 
ception that  it  sooner  gets  slippery  and  dangerous 
it  is  equal  to  granite.  In  some  parts  of  the  world 
there  are  varieties  of  sandstone  which  make  beauti- 
ful pavements.  They  can  be  trimmed  into  more 
regular  blocks  than  any  other  stone  and  thus  lessen 
the  size  of  the  joints  and  the  consequent  wear  and 
noise,  while  at  the  same  time  giving  good  foothold. 
If  any  city  is  located  near  a  good  quarry  of  such 
stone  the  business  streets  should  be  paved  with  it. 


Still  along  the  line  of  evolution  we 
WOOD  come  to  the  wooden  pavement.  This 
was  tried  and  used  after  stone  blocks 
began  to  show  their  undesirable  features.  As  laid 
in  various  cities  and  countries  of  the  world 
wooden  pavements  have  been  alternately  praised 
and  sworn  at.  There  is  no  doubt  that  wooden  pave- 
ments are  in  use  today  which  have  been  down  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  years  and  are  very  satisfactory, 
while  there  are  other  places  where  the  pavements 
have  to  be  replaced  every  five  or  six  years,  and  in 
some  places  two  to  three  years  has  been  the  life. 
Cedar  block  pavements  have  been  extensively  used 
in  the  United  states  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  will 
vanish  forever.  Many  inventors  have  wasted  mil- 
lions of  dollars  of  the  peoples'  money  in  endeavors 
give  a  lasting  wooden  pavement  at  too  low  a  first 
cost.  It  is  now  generally  understood  that  a  close 
grained  wood  must  be  used.  If  soft  and  lasting 
wood  is  used  it  is  a  disappointment  when  placed  in 
the  street  for  it  is  found  that  mere  durability  is  not 
enough.  Cedar  has  been  a  failure  because  too  soft 
although  its  lasting  qualities  in  ordinary  situations 
is  well  understood.  But  a  hard  wood  is  not  desira- 
ble because  it  gets  too  hard  and  smooth  and  after  a 
little  use  the  edges  of  the  blocks  become  worn  and 
it  is  as  bad  as  a  stone  block  pavement  for  noise  and 
filth  producing  properties.  The  proper  kind  of 
wood  is  therefore  a  close  grained  wood  which  cannot 
be  classed  as  a  hard  wood.  It  must  be  sawed  into 
blocks  of  a  regular  shape.  Four  inch  planks  cut 


26 

into  six  inch  squares  make  the  best  blocks.  They 
are  set  on  end  thus  giving  a  depth  of  six  inches  and 
the  travel  comes  on  the  end  of  the  grain.  It  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  place  the  blocks  on  a  concrete 
foundation  and  put  over  this  foundation  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  coarse  sand  to  bring  all  the  blocks  to  a  uni- 
form surface.  Then  the  blocks  should  be  dipped  in 
hot  asphalt  and  put  in  place  while  hot  The  writer 
knows  that  many  people  do  not  believe  with  him  in 
the  dipping  part  of  the  business  because  they  say 
the  asphalt  wears  off  the  top  and  each  block  becomes 
a  pocket  to  hold  moisture.  The  argument  in  favor 
of  the  asphalt  is  that  each  block  is  thoroughly  coated 
and  the  asphalt  cements  the  blocks  together,  thus 
reducing  the  danger  of  water  getting  through.  The 
blocks  are  isolated  and  the  occasional  soft  block 
gets  saturated,  after  which  the  surplus  water  runs 
off  the  surface  until  it  reaches  the  gutter.  When 
the  sun  comes  out  evaporation  takes  the  surface 
water  away  and  capillary  action  brings  the  con- 
tained water  to  the  surface  and  it  is  evaporated  as 
fast  as  it  rises  and  thus  each  block  acts  alone.  If 
there  is  no  asphalt  on  the  bottom  the  water  can  go 
through  the  soft  blocks  and  when  it  reaches  the 
concrete  foundation  will  spread  all  over  and  rise  by 
capillary  action  through  every  block.  In  this  man- 
ner one  or  two  soft  blocks  can  destroy  several  square 
yards  of  pavement. 

A  few  years  ago  the  United  States  went  wild  over 
the  Nicholson  pavement  which  consisted  of  wooden 
blocks  laid  upon  thick  planks  as  a  foundation.  In 
wet  weather  the  blocks  swelled;  in  dry  weather  they 


27 

fell  apart  and  the  joints  filled  with  dirt.  When  the 
wet  weather  again  came  around  the  expansion  of 
the  blocks  was  checked  by  the  presence  of  the  non- 
expanding  material  in  the  joints  and  -the  blocks 
arched  over  the  street  until  sometimes  horses  would 
break  through  and  the  pavement  would  have  to  be 
broken  clear  to  the  gutter  to  enable  them  to  be  res- 
cued from  a  ridiculous  position.  The  city  of  San 
Francisco  suffered  particularly  during  the  Nicholson 
craze  and  hence  all  wood  pavements  in  that  city  are 
called  Nicholson,  and  because  they  are  wood  another 
generation  will  have  to  arise  before  the  modern 
wood  pavement  will  gain  a  foothold  there.  By  that 
time  freight  rates  may  be  so  reasonable  that  wood 
cannot  compete  in  first  cost  or  cost  of  maintenance 
with  brick  or  asphalt  and  will  have  no  show. 

An  expansion  joint  must  be  provided  in  the  wooden 
pavement.  The  Australian  method  is  to  put  a  two 
or  three  inch  plank  alongside  the  curbs  and  lay  the 
blocks  in  the  roadway  between  the  two  planks. 
When  the  blocks  are  all  down  the  planks  are  taken 
up  and  clay  tamped  in  their  place.  When  the 
blocks  expand  the  clay  is  forced  out.  The  asphalt 
between  the  joints  prevents  dirt  from  getting  in  so 
there  is  never  afterwards  any  dangerous  bulging. 
The  writer  believes  the  joint  made  by  Thomas  K. 
Muir  of  Portland,  Ore.,  to  be  better.  It  consists  of 
cloth  asphalted  and  coated  with  grated  cork.  Laid 
between  the  joints  it  takes  up  all  the  expansion  and 
allows  for  the  subsequent  contraction.  It  is  cleanly 
and  not  expensive. 


28 

Wooden  pavements  have  given  satisfaction  for 
many  years  in  England,  France,  Germany  and  Aus- 
tralasia. They  are  being  replaced  by  asphalt  and 
brick  whenever  competion  permits  a  reasonable  dif- 
ference in  price  to  make  one  pavement  as  cheap  as 
anather.  For  cities  in  the  vicinity  of  a  plentiful 
wood  supply  it  may  be  the  best  material  to  use  until 
asphalt  or  brick  can  be  put  down  at  the  same  first 
cost.  Wood  can  be  treated  with  creosote  instead  of 
asphalt  but  it  has  been  found  cheaper  in  San  Fran- 
cisco where  either  method  could  be  adopted,  to  coat 
with  asphalt  rather  than  creosote.  A  mistake  made 
in  the  United  States  has  been  to  use  wood  only  on 
streets  having  light  travel.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  have  too  much  travel  on  a  wooden  paved  street  as 
experience  has  proven.  The  travel  compresses  the 
ends  of  the  blocks  and  makes  them  lasting.  A 
wooden  street  also  requires  plenty  of  water.  The 
sprinkling  cart  should  keep  the  surface  in  order  to 
insure  long  life  as  alternate  wetting  and  drying 
hurt  it.  One  objection  to  wooden  block  pavements 
in  California  cities  is  the  long  period  of  dry  weather. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  several  things  are  necessary 
in  order  to  secure  a  satisfactory  wooden  pavement. 
First  there  must  be  a  concrete  foundation  and  on 
this  the  blocks  must  be  laid  as  closely  and  com- 
pactly as  possible  in  regular  shapes  and  well  coated 
with  asphalt  or  treated  with  creosote.  The  wood 
must  be  close  grained  and  in  Portland,  Ore.,  yellow 
fir  has  proven  to  be  the  most  satisfactory.  There 
should  be  expansion  joints  provided  and  over  the 
top  of  the  pavement  should  be  spread  a  thin  coating 


29 

of  hot  asphalt  and  a  half  inch  of  clear  sand.  The 
sand  to  be  brushed  off  after  a  weeks  use  of  the  street 
and  the  asphalt  coating  to  be  replaced  every  year  or 
two. 

The  question  of  the  healthful  ness  of  wooden 
paved  streets  has  been  urged  against  them.  Statis- 
tics have  been  given  of  the  immense  numbers  of 
germs  found  in  the  joints  between  paving  blocks. 
There  are  germs  and  germs.  Our  only  danger  from 
germs  is  from  a  comparatively  few  species  which 
exist  on  living  matter.  The  kinds  found  in  the 
joints  of  wooden  block  pavements  are  our  best 
friends  who  spend  a  short  but  useful  life  converting 
dead  animal  and  vegetable  matter  into  matter  which 
becomes  plant  food  and  they  thus  help  to  render 
human  life  possible.  With  the  filling  of  the  joints 
with  asphalt  and  the  covering  of  the  blocks  with  the 
same  material  the  opportunities  for  the  existence  of 
germs  are  lessened.  With  the  old  round  cedar 
block  there  was  danger  to  health  because  of  the  op- 
portunity given  for  harmful  germs  to  live,  but  with 
a  modern  wooden  block  pavement  the  talk  of  germs 
is  like  the  nurse's  tale  of  the  "bogie  man." 


Next  in  order  chronologically  conies  as- 
ASPHALT  phalt.  The  asphalt  used  in  Europe 

for  many  years  was  an  asphaltic  lime- 
stone or  limestone  impregnated  with  asphalt  (bitu- 
men). It  was  good  but  very  slippery,  being  put  on 
the  street  in  its  natural  state  after  just  enough  soft- 


30 

ening  by  heat  to  make  it  easy  to  lay  and  roll  thin. 
In  wet  weather  it  was  necessary  to  sand  it  to  keep 
horses  from  slipping.  This  slipperiness  was  a  great 
objection  and  therefore  asphalt  did  not  grow  rapidly 
in  favor  until  the  discovery  'of  the  asphalt  lake  in 
Trinidad  and  the  formation  of  great  asphalt  paving 
companies  with  American  capital.  It  has  grown 
steadily  in  favor  ever  since  and  many  other  sources 
of  suppty  are  now  exploited.  In  fact  within  the  past 
year  it  has  been  claimed  that  an  asphalt  trust  has 
been  organized  which  controls  all  the  known  sup- 
plies. The  material  is  refined  and  brought  to  the 
street,  in  barrels  where  if  is  softened  by  heat  and 
mixed  with  sand  and  a  filler  of  very  fine  material, 
preferably  limestone,  and  laid  on  the  street  hot. 
Before  it  completely  cools  it  is  compressed  and 
rolled  to  its  final  thickness  with  a  heavy  roller.  It 
is  useless  without  a  concrete  foundation  or  a  founda- 
tion of  good  macadam  used  several  years  and  thor- 
oughly cleared  of  dust  before  the  asphalt  is  laid  on 
it  two  to  two  and  one-half  inches  thick.  The  mix- 
ture of  asphalt,  sand  and  limestone  or  rock  dust 
must  be  varied  according  to  climate,  grade  of  the 
street  and  conditions  of  traffic.  For  this  reason  it 
demands  an  amount  of  skilled  scientific  supervision 
few  small  places  can  afford  or  are  unwilling  to  pay 
for  or  cannot  command. 

This,  then,  the  proper  supervision,  is  one  of  the 
local  considerations  influencing  the  selection  of 
paving  materials.  It  must  be  given  proper  weight. 
If  the  small  place  is  bound  to  have  asphalt  pave- 
ment without  expert  advice  and  guidance  the  audio- 


rities  should  be  careful  to  award  the  authority  only 
to  some  very  strong  company  which  can  afford  at  a 
small  profit  to  put  in  a  good  pavement  and  guaran- 
cee  it  for  at  least  ten  years.  Yet  a  large  company  is 
not  always  so  careful  about  a  small  job  in  an  out  of 
the  way  place  as  a  small  company  might  be  with  a 
small  capital  to  lose  and  a  reputation  to  jealously 
guard.  A  smaller  company  to  whom  non-success 
might  mean  absolute  failure  and  bankruptcy  is 
sometimes  more  particular  than  a  large  company 
overcrowded  with  work  and  sometimes  pushed  to 
obtain  competent  foremen.  The  writer  does  not 
advise  the  putting  down  of  asphalt  without  compe- 
tent advice  and  careful  selection  of  inspectors,  for 
every  ordinary  man  is  not  fitted  to  be  an  inspector 
on  asphalt  work. 

A  properly  laid  and  maintained  asphalt  pave- 
ment cannot  be  too  highly  praised.  Being  mono- 
lithic (in  one  piece  without  joints)  it  is  cleanly  and 
sanitary,  can  be  cleaned  and  repaired  easily  and  on 
account  of  the  rubber  like  consistency  of  the  ma- 
terial is  practically  noiseless.  It  conies  as  near 
being  the  perfect  pavement  as  anything  yet  dis- 
covered. 

There  is  another  form  of  asphalt  pavement  known 
as  "bituminous  rock."  It  differs  from  the  asphaltic 
limestone  of  Europe  in  that  the  bitumen  impreg- 
nates beds  of  sand  instead  of  limestone.  It  is  a 
fairly  good  material  and  in  all  respects  but  one,  the 
equal  of  the  best  asphalt.  The  one  defect  is  that  as 
all  beds  of  sand  contain  more  or  less  loam  and  earth 
and  decayed  matter  the  mixture  is  not  uniform. 


Therefore  when  laid  on  streets  it  goes  to  pieces  ir- 
regularly. Some  parts  may  last  for  years  and  some 
parts  for  only  a  few  months.  It  has  been  largely 
used  in  California,  where  the  best  deposits  have 
been  found,  in  cities  where  the  freight  rates  pre- 
vented competition  with  asphalt  brought  in  from  the 
East  and  before  any  good  deposits  of  California 
asphalt  had  been  developed.  Where  it  has  corne 
into  competition  with  asphalt  its  use  has  been  prac- 
tically abandoned. 


Brick  pavements  run  asphalt  very 
BRICK  close.  The  use  of  brick  is  another  in- 
stance of  the  part  local  considerations 
play  in  the  adoption  of  a  paving  material.  The  ma- 
terial of  which  vitrified  paving  brick  is  made  can- 
not be  found  in  every  part  of  the  country.  The 
clays  known  as  "surface  clays,"  which  every  brick- 
maker  has  knowledge  of,  cannot  be  successfully 
used  for  this  class  of  brick,  the  range  of  temperature 
at  which  they  can  be  vitrified  being  very  narrow  on 
account  of  too  much  silicia  or  too  much  lime.  So 
the  brick  will  be  either  un burned  and  thus  be  too 
soft  or  else  will  be  misshapen  and  cannot  be  used. 
It  is  well  to  remember  this  when  dealing  with  the 
local  brickmaker  who  pleads  for  an  opportunity  to 
burn  brick  for  the  paving  of  a  street.  Surface  clays 
have  been  abandoned  for  this  purpose.  An  impure 
fire  clay  can  be  used  and  the  more  impure  the  better 
for  the  purpose.  Care  must  be  taken  however  to 


33 

see  that  the  brick  is  not  too  soft  as  it  requires  a  very 
high  heat  to  vitrify  the  fire  clay.  These  clays  make 
a  tough  brick  when  properly  vitrified.  The  impure 
fire  clays  mentioned  are  better  known  by  the  ma- 
jority of  persons  as  "pipe  clay.'/  But  the  material 
which  should  be  used  for  vitrified  paving  brick  is 
a  shale  found  generally  in  the  vicinity  of  coal  meas- 
ures. The  common  names  are  usoft  slate"  and 
"soapstone."  They  must  be  ground  up  and  then 
when  mixed  with  water  become  plastic  and  can  be 
molded  satisfactorily. 

It  can  be  readily  seen  that  if  the  proper  material 
is  not  found  in  sufficient  quantity  near  the  town  it 
will  be  difficult  to  count  on  vitrified  brick  as  a  pav- 
ing material  The  price  in  the  Middle,  Central  and 
Eastern  states  is  from  $5  to  $8  per  thousand  and  in 
the  West  from  $15  to  $25.  At  a  price  not  to  exceed 
$15  they  can  compete  in  price  with  asphalt.  When 
the  brick  is  brought  any  great  distance  the  freight 
kills  all  consideration  of  its  use  for  paving.  The 
cost  is  too  great,  for  it  must  be  1  orne  in  mind  that 
the  whole  wearing  surface  has  to  be  transported, 
whereas  as  in  the  case  of  asphalt  the  asphalt  alone 
is  brought  in  and  it  comprises  about  ten  per  cent  of 
the  wearing  surface.  The  sand  and  filler  mixed 
with  it  are  local  materials.  It  was  because  the  en- 
tire wearing  surface  comprised  in  a  bituminous  rock 
pavement  had  to  be  transported  which  led  to  its  use 
being  confined  to  places  near  the  mines  as  it  was 
ninety  per  cent  sand. 

Brick  pavement  in  every  way  gives  as  good  satis- 
faction as  asphalt  where  tried  in  competition, 


34 

speaking  generally  again.  There  are  enthusiastic 
believers  in  the  superiority  of  each  material.  The 
writer  prefers  brick  if  found  close  enough  to  be  laid 
at  no  greater  first  cost  than  asphalt.  The  cost  of 
maintenance  is  no  higher.  It  is  practically  as 
noiseless  and  the  clicking  sound  of  the  horseshoes 
is  a  pleasant  one.  If  not  properly  put  down  there 
is  apt  to  be  a  distressing  rumble  under  continuous 
traffic  but  it  is  not  a  characteristic  inseparable  from 
the  use  of  the  material.  The  great  argument  in 
favor  of  brick  as  in  the  case  of  wood  is  that  the 
highly  trained  scientific  supervision  is  not  so  neces- 
sary as  in  the  case  of  asphalt  and  there  is  no  neces- 
sity ior  a  complete  reliance  upon  the  honesty  of  the 
contractor  in  the  absence  of  special  counsel.  Given 
proper  specifications,  a  careful  selection  of  material 
by  an  honest  man  of  the  most  ordinary 
education,  with  honest  supervision  by  men  of  little 
or  no  education  but  with  common  sense  and  an  abil- 
ity to  do  well  what  they  do,  and  the  use  of  brick  and 
wood  pavements  ^an  be  made  possible. 

Each  place  must  study  carefully  local  considera- 
tions and  improve  the  streets  iu  the  best  way  possi- 
ble in  that  particular  place  with  reference  to  the 
good  of  the  community  and  the  least  legitimate 
cost.  Penny  wise  and  pound  foolish  methods  are 
not  the  best.  Any  of  the  leading  materials  will 
make  a  first  class  pavement  under  the  proper  con- 
ditions. It  only  requires  common  sense  and  a  re- 
gard for  the  value  of  the  advice  of  men  possessing  a 
training  in  the  work  and  possessed  likewise  of  com- 
mon sense  in  its  application. 


35 

No  street  will  last  forever  without  some  sort  of 
repairs  and  maintainance.  Constant  attention  is 
required  and  there  must  be  wise  ordinances  well  en- 
forced to  keep  the  streets  properly  preserved  in  a 
state  to  travel  upon  with  comfort  and  satisfaction. 
The  laying  of  street  car  tracks  in  streets  has  a 
great  tendency  to  shorten  the  life  of  a  pavement. 
When  a  franchise  is  granted  for  a  street  railway  it 
should  specify  the  manner  of  constructing  the  road- 
bed and  should  prescribe  the  kind  of  rail  to  be  used. 
There  is  only  one  kind  to  use  and  that  is  a  grooved 
girder  rail. 

It  has  been  the  practice  of  street  railway  com- 
panies to  lay  as  light  a  rail  as  they  could  but  ex- 
perience has  shown  them,  as  it  has  shown  steam 
railroad  managers,  that  a  light  rail  is  a  costly  thing. 
A  gauge  was  used  which  enabled  every  vehicle  in 
the  city  to  "track"  the  rails  and  when  wagons 
followed  the  tracks  with  one  wheel  on  and  the 
other  outside  (in  order  to  turn  out  of  the  way  of  a 
car  easily)  the  streets  were  badly  cut  up.  Of  late 
years  cities  which  have  had  expensive  pavements 
ruined  by  this  "tracking"  have  investigated  the  rail 
question  with  the  result  that  European  practice  is 
being  followed  more  and  more  and  grooved  rails  re- 
quired. These  rails  are  flat  on  top  and  are  flush 
with  the  pavement  on  each  side.  Down  the  middle 
runs  a  groove  for  the  flange  of  the  car  wheel  to 
travel  in  and  this  groove  is  too  narrow  for  wheels  to 
catch  in.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  any  wagon  to 
track  on  such  rails.  There  has  been  an  objection 
on  the  part  of  street  car  men  to  the  use  of  grooved 


36 

rails,  claiming  they  are  difficult  to  keep  clean.  The 
difficulty  is  overestimated  and  in  actual  practice  not 
found  to  be  a  valid  objection.  Even  if  it  were  it  is 
better  for  the  company  to  do  something  to  prevent 
destroying  the  streets  they  occupy  as  a  privilege 
and  not  make  the  suffering  taxpayers  stand  all  the 
cost. 

In  the  case  of  macadamized  streets  it  has  been 
found  by  actual  observation  that  a  street  car  track 
on  such  a  street  increases  the  cost  of  maintenance 
fully  one  third.  On  such  streets  a  T  rail  can  be 
laid  under  proper  specifications  but  a  provision 
should  be  put  in  the  franchise  that  when  the  street 
is  paved  with  wood,  brick,  stone  or  asphalt  that  a 
grooved  girder  rail  will  be  substituted. 

As  tending  also  to  the  preservation  of  the  streets 
may  be  mentioned  the  question  of  electrolysis.  This 
is  a  matter  which  becomes  of  vital  importance  when 
electric  street  railways  are  built.  If  the  single  trol- 
ley system  is  used  the  return  current  goes  back 
underground  and  at  every  possible  opportunity  it 
leaves  the  conductor  and  attacks  metal  pipes  in  the 
ground.  This  necessitates  frequent  opening  of  the 
streets  to  repair  bieaks  in  service  pipes.  The  only 
remedy  thus  far  proposed  which  has  been  found  effi- 
ciemt  is  to  require  the  double  trolley  system  to  be 
installed,  if  a  trolley  system  is  used  at  all. 

To  avoid  destroying  a  street  by  too  frequent  open- 
ing for  water,  light  and  sewer  connections,  some 
regulation  of  pipe  laying  is  necessary.  The  subject 
needs  too  long  a  discussion  to  be  handled  in  a  work 
of  the  scope  of  the  present  volume.  Briefly,  how- 


37 

ever,  it  would  be  well  to  have  every  pipe  on  streets 
running  in  a  certain  direction  at  one  depth  and  on 
intersecting  streets  one  or  two  feet  deeper.  They 
should  be  certain  specified  distances  from  the  curb 
and  before  a  street  is  paved  house  connections  should 
be  run  from  the  pipes  every  25  feet  to  a  point  one 
foot  inside  the  curb  line. 

Maps  of  the  lines  with  locations  of  all  house  con- 
nections should  be  kept  in  the  office  of  the  city  en- 
gineer. 

The  cleaning  of  streets  is  an  ^xpensive  item 
which  becomes  yearly  greater.  Until  some  good 
way  of  utilizing  the  refuse  is  devised  there  will  be 
no  escape  from  it.  It  has  been  stated  in  public 
print  that  in  Belgium  several  cities  let  the  contract 
yearly  for  the  removal  of  street  refuse  to  the  one 
who  will  give  the  most  for  the  privilege.  The  re- 
fuse is  used  by  stock  breeders  and  manufacturers 
of  artificial  manures.  This  may  be  true  but  there 
must  be  some  exceptional  facilities  for  refuse  dis- 
posal. 


Every  street  requires  a  curb.    It  serves 
CURBING     to  definitely  fix  the   line   between    the 
roadway  and  the  sidewalk,    to  serve  as 
one  side  of  the  gutter  and   to   improve    the    appear- 
ance of   the    street.     On    macadam    streets    wooden 
curbs   are  often  used.     The  best  are  sixteen   inches 
deep   and    four    inches    thick.     The   grade    of    the 


38 

street  is  two  inches  higher  than  the  top  of  the  curb 
and  the  wooden  sidewalks  when  built  are  spiked 
to  the  top  of  the  curb. 

Concrete  curbs  are  very  satisfactory  in  appear- 
ance and  when  well  constructed  are  durable  and  be- 
ing lower  in  cost  than  granite  are  so  far  preferable. 
Granite  curbs  are  laid  in  pieces  averaging  from  four 
to  eight  feet  in  length.  In  some  cities  they  are 
clamped  together  but  generally  however  they  are 
laid  end  to  end  and  well  bedded.  Granite  and  con- 
crete curbs  are  generally  six  inches  wide  on  top, 
eight  inches  on  the  bottom  and  sixteen  inches  deep. 
The  top  is  on  the  official  street  grade  and  elevation. 

The  shaping  of  corners  presents  considerable  va- 
riety. The  most  handsome  street  intersection  is 
one  where  the  two  intersecting  curbs  meet  on  a  ra- 
dius equal  to  the  width  of  the  narrower  sidewalk. 
For  this  reason  concrete  curbing  is  desirable,  for 
molds  can  be  made  for  any  radius.  It  might  in- 
crease the  cost  of  granite  curbing  if  stone  had  to 
be  cut  for  a  different  radius  on  every  job,  in  the  case 
of  a  city  where  there  are  many  streets  of  different 
width,  so  a  common  corner  of  about  10  foot  radius 
can  be  used.  But  many  cities  use  a  radius  as  small 
as  three  feet  and  some  of  eighteen  inches.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  corners  is  not  at  all  handsome  and 
the  corners  jut  pretty  far  out  into  the  roadway 
Wooden  curbs  can  be  placed  on  a  radius  by  either 
cutting  the  four  inch  plank  into  sections  about  one 
foot  in  length  with  a  bevel  or  by  driving  4x4  posts 
into  the  ground,  on  a  curve  four  inches  inside  the 


39 

curb  curb  and  about  three  feet  apart.  Four  thick- 
nesses of  one  inch  boards  can  be  bent  around  these 
posts  and  spiked  to  them. 


In   general   the   sidewalk   space    on 

SIDEWALKS  each  side  of  the  steet  should  be  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  street  width.  The 
roadway  would  then  be  three  fifths  the  width  of  the 
street.  The  curb  will  define  the  line  between  the 
roadway  and  sidewalk  reservation.  On  business 
streets  the  whole  space  will  be  utilized  but  on  resi- 
dence streets  the  sidewalks  can  be  narrow  and  on 
each  side  the  space  be  planted  with  grass  and  trees. 

Wooden  sidewalks  are  only  temporary  affairs  and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  after  they  com- 
mence to  wear.  The  boards  get  loose  and  the  nails 
stick  up.  They  trip  the  pedestrian  in  summer  and 
Squirt  muddy  water  on  him  in  winter.  They  should 
be  made  of  two  inch  plank  not  more  than  eight  in- 
ches nor  less  than  six  inches  wide  and  be  spiked 
with  about  a  2O-penny  nail.  The  top  of  the  nail 
should  be  driven  a  quarter  of  an  inch  below  the 
surface. 

Stone  flag  sidewalks  are  not  satisfactory  as  they 
wear  unevenly  and  get  loose  after  much  travel. 
Brick  sidewalks  have  the  same  objection  although 
they  look  neat.  If  constructed  with  vitrified  paving 
brick  grouted  with  cement  they  are  not  bad. 

The  best  sidewalk  is  the  concrete  and  rement  walk 
properly  laid.  There  should  be  good  specifications 


40 

and  competent  supervision  an  I  every  property 
owner  should  be  compelled  to  comply  with  specifi- 
cations prepared  by  the  city  officials.  The  glare  of 
the  light  colored  sidewalk  on  a  sunshiny  day  is  ob- 
jectionable but  it  may  be  overcome.  By  the  use  of 
lampblack  or  other  colored  pigments  the  color  of  the 
sidewalk  can  be  greatly  modified.  There  is  danger, 
hower,  of  injuring  the  cement  by  such  mixtures  and 
they  also  fade  out  after  a  while  unless  the  work  is 
done  by  skillful  men.  There  are  some  preparations 
designed  to  be  mixed  with  the  water  used  to  temper 
the  mortar.  These  preparations  are  very  satisfac- 
tory in  use  and  are  lasting. 


There  are  no  set  rules   to   follow 

GRADES  in  establishing   grades    and   im- 

AND  proving    streets.      The    streets 

IMPROVEMENTS     are  to  look  well,  are   to  serve  as 

drains  c.nd  as  avenues  of   travel. 

They  are  to  be  improved  at  the  lowest  possible  cost 
to  attain  these  ends.  All  other  considerations  are 
matters  of  detail. 

Business  streets  should  all  have  if  possible,  a  level 
cross  section,  or  a  cross  section  nearly  level.  They 
should  be  improved  from  property  line  to  property 
line.  It  is  generally  easy  to  do  this  as  the  business 
portion  of  a  town  is  as  a  rule  laid  out  in  the  first 
place  in  the  most  level  part  of  a  tract  of  land.  A 


level  cross  section  is  one   where  the   curbs   on    each 
side  of  the  street  are  at  the  same  elevation. 

For  drainage  the  sidewalks  slope  toward  the  gut- 
ter and  the  roadway  is  high  in  the  center.  The 
shaping  and  crowning  of  the  roadway  depends  upon 
the  width  of  the  street  and  the  material  used  for 
paving,  as  a  smooth  impervious  pavement  needs 
very  little  crowning.  When  one  side  of  the  street 
is  a  few  inches  or  a  foot  higher  than  the  other  con- 
siderable study  may  be  required  to  secure  the  proper 
crown. 

Some  towns  are  laid  out  on  a  hillside  and  the 
streets  follow  the  contour  of  the  ground.  In  such 
cases  the  difference  in  elevation  of  the  two  sides  of 
the  street  may  be  as  much  as  ?o  or  30  feet,  although 
10  to  15  is  more  common.  These  sidehill  streets 
are  generally  residence  streets  and  should  be  im- 
proved at  as  slight  cost  as  possible  to  give  them  a 
handsome  appearance  and  accomplish  the  desired 
end.  The  grade  when  established  should  be  the 
grade  of  the  roadway.  This  need  not  be  more  than 
20  to  25  feet  wide.  On  the  inside  next  the  bank 
should  be  placed  a  curb  and  gutter  and  on  the  out- 
side a  curb  and  sidewalk  and  railing.  The  sidewalk 
need  not  be  more  than  five  or  six  feet  wide.  Ter- 
races should  connect  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk  and 
the  curb  on  the  inside  of  the  aoadway  with  the 
ground  at  the  fences  on  each  side.  These  slopes 
can  be  planted  to  grass  or  flowers  and  cared  for  by 
the  adjoining  property  owners.  In  fact  in  some 
places  the  adjoining  owners  are  permitted  by  the 
city  to  fence  down  to  the  edge  of  the  improved  por- 


42 

tion  (on  a  lease  terminable  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
council)  and  the  effect  of  the  narrow  winding  road- 
way through  flower  beds  and  nicely  sodded  slopes 
has  an  enchanting  park  effect.  By  some  such 
method  of  improvement  it  is  possible  to  save  hand- 
some old  trees  by  winding  the  roadway  round  them. 

In  establishing  grades  two  things  must  be  con- 
sidered— drainage  and  traction.  Any  slope  will 
cause  water  to  move  but  the  least  grade  should  be 
limited,  if  possible,  to  four  inches  in  100.  The 
writer  however,  has  had  to  establish  grades  on 
streets  of  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  100,  and  has 
known  of  some  towns  where  the  streets  were  per- 
fectly level  from  one  end  of  a  block  to  another. 
This  is  not  good  practice  to  follow  but  it  simply  em- 
phasizes the  remark  above  made  that  there  are  no 
set  rules  to  follow  and  serves  to  show  how  necessary 
it  is  to  have  proper  advice  in  such  work.  A  grade 
cannot  be  fixed  for  one  block  alone  but  each  block 
has  to  be  studied  with  reference  to  surrounding 
blocks.  For  streets  having  a  light  grade  or  no 
grade,  a  grade  for  the  surface  water  is  created  in  the 
gutter  by  raising  one  end  or  by  raising  the  gutter 
in  the  middle  of  the  block.  This  can  be  done  and 
the  curb  be  level  although  it  is  not  the  most  sightly 
thing  to  do. 

It  having  been  shown  that  water  can  be  made  to 
run  off  a  level  street  it  is  necessary  to  see  the 
limiting  effect  of  traction.  Horses  can  do  with- 
out ity  therefore  street  grades  should  be  limited 
between  the  lightest  possible  for  efficient  drainage 
and  the  steepest  a  team  with  loaded  wagon  can  as- 


cend  with  ease.  The  steepest  grade  should  not  ex- 
ceed, if  possible,  a  five  foot  rise  in  100.  Heavier 
grades,  as  well  as  extremely  light  grades  should 
only  be  adopted  after  most  careful  study. 

Calling  the  load  a  horse  will  pull  on  a  level  sur- 
face 100,  then  on  a  grade  of 

r  in  100  a  horse  will  pull  90 

2  in  100         <l  "         "    81 

4  in  100         '«  "         "    52 

5  in  roo         "  l<         "•    40 
10  in  100         "  "         <l    25 

In  establishing  grades  the  question  ofexpense  has 
to  be  taken  into  account  and  this  must  be  figured  as 
other  business  matters  have  to  be  figured.  If  the 
street  is  important  enough  to  justify  the  greater  ex- 
pense of  a  better  grade — of  several  under  considera- 
tion— then  the  best  grade  is  the  more  expensive  one. 
But  if  it  is  only  a  side  street  or  cross  street,  or  un- 
important residence  street,  the  property  owners 
should  have  a  voice  in  the  matter  and  a  considera- 
ble influence.  There  is  nothing  in  all  the  work  of  a 
municipal  officer  which  requires  more  pure  grit  and 
courage  than  the  work  of  establishing  a  grade  pre- 
liminary to  improvement  of  a  street.  No  matter 
how  it  is  finally  settled  he  meets  with  the  approval 
of  a  very  few  and  makes  enemies  of  a  great  man}-, 
and  some  of  the  enemies  are  vindictive  and  their  en- 
mity pursues  the  unfortunate  object  to  the  grave. 
Until  a  regular  grade  is  established  each  man  has 
regarded  the  street  in  front  of  his  own  lot  as  so 
much  of  his  own  property  and  it  is  hard  to  persuade 
him  that  anyone  else  has  jurisdiction  over  it.  He 
has  side  walked,  drained  and  paved  (?)  it  to  suit  him- 


44 

self  and  whether  above  or  below  the  general  level  is 
confident  that  his  floor  line  is  exactly  where  the 
grade  should  be.  The  councilman  who  does  not 
agree  with  him  has  an  enemy  and  the  engineer  he  is 
conv'nced  is  ignorant  of  the  first  rudiments  of  muni- 
cipal engineering. 

The  first  step  taken  in  the  improvement  of  the 
streets  of  any  village  or  small  town  is  to  build  a 
sidewalk.  All  improvement  generally  stops  then 
until  some  day  a  mighty  upheaval  is  had  and  a  reg- 
ular job  is  commenced  of  work  like  that  done  in  a 
large  city,  but  in  one  town  a  gradual  evolution  was 
proceeded  with  and  the  result  was  extremely  grati- 
fying to  all  concerned.  In  the  first  place  grades 
were  established  so  that  surface  water  could  be  dis- 
posed of.  These  grades  were  not  in  all  cases  the 
permanent  grades  but  were  established  so  the  im- 
provements could  be  carried  on  at  the  least  possible 
expense. 

Sidewalks  were  built  to  these  grades.  On  the 
curb  line  wooden  curbs  were  set  of  not  less  than 
3x14  timbers  on  edge.  These  curbs  were  required 
whenever  a  sidewalk  went  in  and  the  corners  were 
connected  wi^h  curves  of  large  radius.  On  the  low 
lying  streets  a  gutter  was  rounded  outside  the  curb 
lines  and  when  the  city  afterwards  purchased  a  road 
machine  the  roadway  was  rounded  every  spring  and 
again  in  the  fall.  On  the  hill  streets  a  plank  was 
nailed  to  the  curb  at  an  angle  and  served  as  a  flume 
gutter  to  carry  off  surface  water.  On  the  business 
streets  the  plank  was  two  inches  thick  and  made  a 
very  good  gutter.  As  time  went  on  certain  prop- 


45 

ertv  owners  put  in  stone  or  concrete  curbs  and  the 
wooden  gutters  were  replaced  with  cobble  stone. 
On  the  flatter  streets  stone  gutters  were  also  used. 

The  line  of  improvement  being  thus  indicated 
and  the  different  sections  of  the  street  defined,  every 
step  taken  was  one  forward.  Some  of  the  people 
in  different  parts  of  town  commenced  hauling 
gravel  and  broken  stone  on  the  roadway  in  .front  of 
their  property  and  the  town  purchased  a  road  roller 
and  sprinkler  and  kept  the  streets  looking  well. 
All  the  streets,  even  those  on  which  no  gravel  or 
stone  had  been  hauled,  gradully  assumed  a  fine  ap- 
pearance. As  the  place  grew  the  area  of  traveled 
streets  seriously  taxed  the  taxable  resources  of  the 
city  to  keep  them  up.  So  the  council  declined  to 
take  care  of  any  streets  not  g-raveled  at  least.  This 
led  to  such  an  increase  of  graveled  roadways  that 
the  line  had  to  be  drawn  at  macadam  and  finally 
when  nearly  every  street  in  town  had  been  mac- 
adamized some  of  the  heavier  traveled  streets  were 
paved  with  brick  and  wood,  and  again  the  council 
had  to  draw  the  line.  No  streets  thereafter  would 
be  kept  in  repair  unless  they  were  paved  with  some 
approved  material.  The  council  kept  the  gutters 
clear  and  the  streets  clean  but  charged  the  expense 
of  repairs  to  the  owners  of  abutting  property  until 
such  a  time  as  a  more  lasting  covering  was  put  on, 
when  the  city  assumed  the  entire  cost  of  future  per- 
petual maintenance. 

In  some  states  this  can  be  done  while  in  others  it 
is  doubtful  if  such  a  proceedure  could  be  followed. 
Still  common  sense  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a 


46 

time  must  come  when  some  rule  must  be  followed  in 
street  maintenance  or  a  city  can  be  bankrupted  by 
the  unprogressive  element. 

Whatever  the  proceedure  adopted  for  gradual  bet- 
tering the  condition  of  the  streets  the  first  step 
is  to  provide  for  proper  drainage.  A  dirt 
road  can  give  fairly  good  satisfaction  if  it  is  rounded 
up  in  the  center  and  kept  well  rolled  and  has  gut- 
ters on  each  side  to  conduct  the  surface  water  away 
to  a  place  where  it  can  be  disposed  of.  In  improv- 
ing a  town  much  can  be  done  by  concerted  action  of 
the  property  owners.  Improvement  clubs  and  arbor 
societies  and  such  organizations  are  wonderful  helps. 
Where  such  influences  exist  the  towns  contrast 
favorably  with  places  where  everything  is  left 
to  a  small  body  of  unpaid  men  who  cannot 
devote  much  time  and  attention  to  public  affairs.  A 
backward  town  is  more  often  backward  by  reason  of 
neglect  by  the  citizens  than  by  reason  of  neglect  by 
the  council. 

The  appearance  of  the  streets  of  a  city  have  as 
much  to  do  with  its  growth  or  failure  to  grow  as  any 
other  thing.  Strangers  get  their  first  impressions 
of  a  place  from  the  streets  and  nothing  can  be  said  in 
praise  of  the  wealth  or  enterprise  of  the  inhabitants  or 
the  logical  advantages  of  the  location  of  the  city  to 
counteract  the  effect  a  poorly  kept  street  has  as  a 
first  impression.  First  impressions  are  said  to  be 
most  lasting,  therefore  the  streets  should  be  at- 
tended to  first  and  the  matter  of  water  supply  and 
sewerage — in  up  to  date  methods — can  be  left  until 
the  place  has  at  least  one  good  looking  street. 


fe 

Better  sewerage  facilities  will  be  demanded  whe 
the  city  grows  and  an  improved  water  system  will 
be  required  when  there  is  a  population  to  demand  it. 
The  population  however  will  go  to  the  most  enter- 
prising towns  always  and  the  most  enterprising 
looking  towns  grow  fastest. 

Taxes  are  higher  in  towns  and  cities  where  the 
streets  are  neglected  or  are  of  earth.  It  costs  more 
to  keep  np  a  poor  street  than  it  does  a  good  one.  A 
street  on  which  about  $300  per  annum  had  been 
spent  and  no  appreciable  improvement  made  was 
paved  at  a  cost  which  was  equal  to  $200  per  annum 
capitalized.  The  annual  maintainance  cost  was 
nothing  for  three  years.  After  that  the  annual 
maintenance  cost  was  less  than  $25,  making  quite  a 
saving  and  adding  considerably  to  the  comfort  and 
convenience  of  the  people. 


48 


CHAPTER  II. 

A  distinction  is   made   by    engineers 
DRAINAGE     between  drainage  and   sewerage,  the 
AND  former  term  being  applied   solely   to 

SEWERAGE     the  disposal  of  surface  water  and  the 
latter  to  the   collection    and    disposal 
of  liquid  household  wastes.     Solid  wastes  from  house- 
holds is    termed    garbage.       Street    sweepings    and 
non-putrefactive  waste  matter  is  called  refuse 


In  the  majority  of  cases  the  drainage 
DRAINAGE     of  a  town  offers  few  difficulties.     The 
whole  practice  is   simple.       Keep  the 
water  on   the   surface   as  much  as  possible  in  easily 
controlled  channels  and   dispose   of  it  in   the  most 
convenient  stream  or  river.       It    is    clean    and    can 
offer  no  detriment  to  the   health  of  the  community 
to  discharge  it  into  any  running  stream.     It  is  only 
when  allowed  to  collect  in  low   lying  places   and  be- 
come stagnant  that  it  is  harmful. 

The  first  step  in  the  drainage  'of  a  place  is  to  pro- 
vide broad,  deep  gutters  along  the  sides  of  the 
streets  after  grades  have  been  established  thereon. 
On  the  steeper  side  hill  streets  V  flumes  can  be  laid 


49 

with  boards  under  them  at  each  joint  going  down 
for  at  least  a  foot  vertically  and  comin  ^  up  on  each 
side  level  with  the  top  of  the  flume.  This  will  turn 
the  water  back  into  the  flume  in  case  any  gets  under 
and  threatens  to  wash  out  a  deep  and  dangerous 
gully  The  surface  water  should  be  carried  in  the 
flumes  and  gutters  as  far  as  possible  and  at  every 
opportunity  the  streams  should  be  divided  and  sent 
off  in  different  directions  to  guard  against  too  great 
an  increase  in  flow  and  consequent  difficulty  in 
handling.  It  should  not  be  taken  under  ground  ex- 
cept where  unavoidable. 

Much  of  the  rainfall  is  absorbed  as  it  falls  but  as 
a  town  becomes  more  closely  built  over  and  the  area 
of  paved  streets  increases,  a  less  quantity  goes  that 
way  and  proper  conduits  must  be  provided  for  it. 
When  the  town  becomes  a  city  then  a  portion  of  the 
sewerage  system  will  have  to  be  of  large  sewers  suf- 
ficient in  size  to  take  care  of  the  surface  water. 

At    the    time    the    plan    for    surface 
SEWERAGE     drainage    is    made    there    should   be 

prepared  a  complete  plan  for  a  sew- 
erage system.  It  should  net  be  a  matter  of  hap- 
hazard growth  as  it  too  commonly  is,  but  should  be 
gone  at  systematically.  Because  a  complete  plan  is 
prepared  does  not  mean  it  will  be  all  constructed  at 
one  time,  but  simply  that  as  a  sewer  is  put  in  it  will 
be  in  the  right  place  and  constructed  in  the  right 
manner.  In  a  growing  place  the  work  is  never 
complete  but  sewer  building  is  going  on  all  the 
time  and  plans  prepared  must  take  into  considera- 
tion this  growth. 


50 

It  has  unfortunately  happened  many  times  that 
for  lack  of  proper  attention  to  this  detail  by  the 
council  many  private  sewers  are  built  by  parties 
who  can  afford  it.  When  a  proper  plan  is  prepared 
it  has  been  found  impossible  to  use  these  sewers  in 
the  general  system  and  expensive  lawsuits  and  vex- 
atious delays -result.  If  a  plan  had  been  first  pre- 
pared these  private  sewers  could  have  been  con- 
structed in  a  way  to  have  formed  a  part  of  the  com- 
plete system  and  thus  helped  instead  of  hindering 
the  final  work  of  putting  the  town  in  a  complete 
sanitary  condition.  The  combined  system  of  sewer- 
age is  that  in  which  provision  is  made  for  the  dis- 
posal of  surface  water  and  sewage  in  the  same  pipes 
or  channels.  It  is  necessary  in  a  large  city  but  in 
smaller  places  it  is  too  expensive  on  account  of  the 
size  of  the  conduits.  By  keeping  the  surface  water 
on  the  surface  as  much  as  possible  a  great  saving 
can  be  effected  in  the  building  of  sewers.  It  has 
been  thought  necessary  in  many  places  to  carry 
both  water  and  sewage  in  the  one  system  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  cost  the  sewers  are  never  built. 

Modern  sewerage  systems  are  generally  spoken 
of  as  the  "sanitary"  system  of  sewerage,  where 
small  pipes  carry  the  sewage  and  separate  conduits 
are  used  for  surface  water.  Many  term  this  system 
of  small  pipes  the  separate  system  as  distinguished 
from  the  combined.  It  is  the  only  system  to  use  in 
small  places,  and  in  fact  in  large  cities  there  are  dif- 
ferent sewerage  districts,  each  sewered  on  the  sepa- 
rate plan  and  carrying  the  surface  water  in  gutters 
to  central  points  where  there  are  larger  sewers  to 


carry  everything  finally  to  the  point  of  ultimate  dis- 
posal 

In  planning  sewers  for  a  system  of  sanitary  sew- 
erage it  is  necessary  to  have  the  pipes  large  enough 
to  flow  half  or  three-quarters  full.  They  will  then 
keep  themselves  clear.  If  built  of  too  large  a  size  to 
carry  the  constant  flow  the  sediment  in  the  sewage 
will  be  gradually  deposited  until  the  sewer  becomes 
choked.  A  small  channel  is  left  at  the  top  sufficient 
to  carry  the  regular  daily  flow  and  no  more.  If  this 
sewer  is  intended  to  carry  storm  water  also  it  is 
generally  found  full  of  decaying  matter  and  refuse 
when  the  storm  comes  and  the  street  is  flooded  until 
the  sewer  is  cleaned. 

In  addition  to  the  choking  up  of  the  drain  and 
thus  rendering  it  unfit  for  its  purpose  as  a  storm 
drain,  the  continual  deposit  of  excrementitious  mat- 
ter is  a  menace  to  health.  The  large  empty  spaces 
invite  accumulations  of  sewer  gas  until  the  sewer  is 
filled  when  the  bad  odors  and  poisonous  vapors  get 
out  into  the  open  air.  The  remedy  is  to  flush  with 
a  hose  from  the  nearest  hydrant.  To  illustrate  how 
much  good  this  does  let  us  compare  the  comparative 
sizes  of  the  sewer  and  the  stream  of  water  in  it. 
Take  a  15  inch  pipe  as  an  example  and  the  absurd- 
ity can  be  further  seen  when  a  larger  pipe  is  con- 
sidered. Disregarding  decimals  the  area  of  a  15 
inch  pipe  is  177  square  inches.  The  area  of  a 
stream  of  water  from  a  2^2  inch  hose  is  5  inches. 
How  much  good  does  it  do. 

The  grade  of  a  sewer  is  everything.  Without  a 
proper  grade  it  is  costly  and  dangerous.  It  should 


52 

have  a  grade  sufficient  to  give  the  sewage  a  velocity 
of  at  least  three  feet  per  second  in  order  to  have  a 
cleansing  flow.  A  light  grade  produces  such  a 
sluggish  movement  that  solid  matters  cannot  be 
moved  and  so  remain  to  clog  the  pipe,  while  too 
steep  a  grade  produces  so  rapid  a  current  the  solid 
matters  are  stranded  because  there  is  not  enough 
flow  to  carry  them.  Either  extreme  is  bad. 

In  a  separate  system  small  pipes  must  be  used  and 
it  often  occurs  that  a  3  or  4  inch  pipe  would  be 
amply  sufficient  for  the  work  were  it  not  for  the  dif- 
ficulty of  access  to  the  pipes  for  cleaning  and  the 
liability  of  something  catching  in  them  which  has 
been  forced  down  the  house  diain.  Therefore  the 
smallest  size  should  be  six  inches.  Until  the  popu- 
lation has  grown  sufficiently  to  keep  a  constant 
cleansing  flow  in  the  pipes  a  flush  tank  should  be 
attached  to  the  upper  end,  and  there  should  be  a 
flush  tank  at  the  upper  end  of  all  lateral^.  Flush 
tanks  are  necessary  for  efficiency  and  economy. 

A  flush  tank  should  be  capable  of  discharging 
from  60  to  300  gallons  of  water  in  less  than  one 
minute  into  a  sewer  and  should  be  adjusted  to  dis- 
charge at  least  twice  a  day.  They  are  automatic 
in  action  and  a  common  form  is  a  siphon.  A  large 
tank  like  a  man-hole  is  built  of  brick  and  a  pipe 
from  the  bottom  of  it  connects  with  the  sewer. 
Underneath  this  tank  is  a  small  chamber  containing 
a  tilting  pan  which  holds  a  few  gallons  of  water  and 
when  level  is  full  of  water.  A  large  iron  siphon  is 
attached  to  the  tank  and  goes  from  the  pan  through 
the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  near  the  top  curves 


53 

downward  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  bottom.  A 
small  stream  of  water  enters  the  flush  tank  and 
gradually  raises  the  level  until  it  commences  to 
flow  over  the  bend  in  the  siphon  and  then  down  into 
the  small  tilting  basin  which  gradually  fills  and 
seals  the  bottom  of  the  siphon.  When  this  is  down 
the  water  keeps  rising  and  flowing  over  the  bend 
until  the  siphon  gets  so  full  of  water  that  the  weight 
is  too  much  for  the  tilting  basin  which  tips  over  and 
thus  opens  the  seal.  The  water  is  sucked  rapidly 
through  the  siphon  until  the  tank  is  emptied  when 
the  basin  resumes  its  horizontal  position  and  is 
ready  once  more  to  seal  the  siphon.  There  have 
been  many  variations  on  this  idea,  some  good  and 
some  poor. 

In  general  the  advantages  of  flush  tanks  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows.  The  sudden  discharge  of  a 
large  volume  of  water  into  a  small  pipe  momentarily 
compresses  the  air  in  front  and  forces  it  out  at  every 
opening.  This  creates  a  temporary  vacuum  which 
is  filled  with  fresher  air  from  the  outside  and  thus 
simplifies  the  question  of  ventilation.  The  frequent 
volumes  of  cool  water  thrown  in,  together  with  the 


ERRATA 

''Disease  germs  cannot  multiply  to  any  extent  ex- 
cept in  a  temperature  exceeding  sixty  degrees,  etc." 
Eighth  line  from  bottom  of  page  53. 


54 

of  water  in  large  quantities  into  the  pipe  helps  to 
start  them  going.  The  tendency  of  sewers  to  silt 
up  until  they  get  a  cleansing  flow  was  the  primary 
reason  for  the  adoption  of  flush  tanks.  A  confer- 
void  growth  attaches  itself  to  all  sewers  just  below 
the  line  of  continual  flow,  especially  if  there  is  a 
slight  velocity,  and  an  occasional  full  flow  of  short 
duration  tends  to  loosen  it. 

A  certain  width,  not  less  than  ten  feet,  in  the 
middle  of  the  street  should  be  reserved  for  sewers 
and  no  water,  gas,  or  other  conduits  should  be  per- 
mitted there.  The  sewers  depend  upon  grade  and 
the  other  things  go  by  pressure.  It  would  be  better 
of  course  to  have  two  lines  of  sewer,  one  under 
each  sidewalk,  in  a  large  conduit  which  would  carry 
all  wires  and  pipes  and  thus  avoid  tearing  up  the 
streets.  It  is  too  much  to  hope  for  in  many  places. 

In  putting  down  a  sewer  system  the  question 
arises  of  the  depth.  The  depth  should  be  sufficient 
to  drain  the  lowest  cellar  and  provide  for  a  free  dis- 
charge at  the  outlet.  Sometimes  in  flat  districts 
there  is  a  discussion  as  to  whether  to  put  in  a  long 
sewer  on  a  slight  grade  or  construct  several  outlets 
with  short  mains  and  laterals.  Such  questions  had 
better  be  left  entirely  to  the  engineer  who  plans  the 
system,  presuming  of  course  that  he  has  been 
selected  for  his  known  ability  in  such  work.  It  is 
well  when  the  system  is  planned  to  have  the 
engineer  prepare  ordinances  also  for  the  proper 
maintainance  of  the  system  in  good  condition  and 
have  him  prepare  proper  specifications  for  doing  the 
work.  All  house  connections  should  be  made  by 


55 

licensed  plumbers  or  licensed  drain  layers  and  the 
city  engineer  charged  with  the  duty  of  inspection  of 
all  openings  made. 

Sewers  need  cleaning  at  intervals.  Flush  tanks 
are  of  great  benefit  but  there  still  exists  a  necessity 
for  cleaning  the  sewers  occasionally.  Sewers  large 
enough  for  a  man  to  enter  are  cleaned  by  men  with 
shovels  and  the  material  taken  out  in  buckets  at 
convenient  man-holes  and  put  in  wagons  to  be 
carried  away.  The  process  of  cleaning  a  system 
should  commence  at  the  lower  end  and  proceed 
towards  the  last  lateral  and  then  go  back  over  the 
system  in  reverse  order  to  clear  out  all  accumula- 
tions. Small  pipe  sewers  are  sometimes  cleansed 
by  putting  in  a  wooden  ball  of  diameter  a  little 
smaller  than  the  pipe.  This  ball  floats  until  it 
meets  an  obstruction  when  it  is  stopped  and  the 
water  dammed  up  until  enough  accumulates  to  force 
the  obstruction  on  or  wash  it  out. 

Sometimes  a  scraping  is  necessary,  especially 
when  there  is  a  heavy  confervoid  growth.  A  small 
wooden  float  weighed  so  it  will  remain  an  inch  or  so 
under  water  is  attached  to  a  string  and  dropped 
down  a  man-hole  or  inspection  hole.  It  floats  to 
the  one  below  where  an  attendant  catches  it  and 
then  a  small  rope  is  tied  to  the  string  and  hauled 
through.  A  heavier  rope  is  tied  to  this  and  when 
the  man  at  the  lower  end  has  one  end  of  it  the 
scraper  is  attached  to  the  other  end  and  dragged. 
It  should  go  through  twice.  The  writer  has  used 
for  a  scraper  a  heavy  chain  having  in  each  link  a 
piece  of  wire  twisted  until  the  chain  resembles  in 


56 

appearance  a  brush  used  to  clean  a  nursing  bottle 
tube.  The  chain  may  be  several  feet  long  and 
should  be  at  least  two  or  three  feet  long.  If  steel 
wire  is  used  the  scraper  may  be  used  for  sewers 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  Attached  to 
the  rear  end  of  the  scraper  is  a  gunny  sack  filled 
with  excelsior  or  shavings.  This  should  be  hauled 
through  rapidly.  Then  the  water  should  be  turned 
on  full  force  in  all  house  connections  along  the  line 
for  an  hour  at  least  when  the  scraper  can  be  run 
through  the  sewer  again  to  catch  the  stuff  forced 
out  of  the  house  connections  and  which  was  crowded 
in  on  the  first  round  of  the  scraper.  The  second 
time  the  scraper  should  be  inside  the  gunny  sack 
and  the  shavings  can  be  dispensed  with.  If  sand 
deposits  in  the  sewer  the  scraper  should  be  a  long 
heavy  chain  and  taken  through  several  times  before' 
the  sack  is  used. 


It  is  not  enough  to  have   a  system  of 
SEWAGE      sewers  designed  and  leave  the  disposal 
DISPOSAL     to  luck.     It  is  no  longer   safe   to   dis- 
charge sewage  into  rivers  and  streams 
as  the  population  of  the   country   is   increasing   too 
rapidly.     Every  day  some  decision  is  reported  from 
different  states  in  which    complaint   has   been  made 
of  the  pollution  of  water.     A  case  has  been   decided 
that  a  city  has  no  right  to  pollute  with  sewerage   its 


57 

own  source  of  water  supply.  This  is  indeed  carry- 
ing things  with  a  high  hand  when  people  are  not 
allowed  to  do  as  they  please  when  they  are  the  only 
sufferers.  If  they  wish  to  do  harmful  things  then 
they  should  be  permitted  to  die  off. 

But  people  residing  along  a  stream  should  not  be 
so  placed  that  they  hold  their  lives  and  health 
subject  to  the  will  of  those  above  them.  For  such 
the  courts  give  ample  protection  and  the  trend  of 
the  decisions  is  more  and  more  severe  and  confining 
until  it  is  likely  in  a  few  years  not  the  slightest 
contamination  will  be  permitted  of  any  waier 
course.  Modern  sanitary  science  has  shown  more 
diseases  to  result  from  impure  drinking  water  than 
from  lack  of  sewerage  facilities  and  the  drinking 
water  must  be  protected.  The  seepage  through 
the  soil  of  the  wastes  of  living  does  much  to  purify 
the  atmosphere.  Whatever  gases  escape  are  seldom 
of  a  harmful  nature  but  the  liquids  being  removed 
from  the  beneficial  influence  of  oxygenizing  agencies 
percolate  through  the  soil  to  contaminate  the  under- 
ground water.  This  is  why  wells  are  so  objection- 
able as  a  source  of  supply  in  a  thickly  settled 
community.  But  these  liquids  can  percolate 
through  the  soil  and  rise  with  springs  into  a  river 
from  its  bottom  and  be  rendered  comparatively 
innocuous  by  dilution.  When  delivered  how- 
ever in  quantities  into  the  river  near  its  surface 
together  with  all  the  waste  matter  in  a  solid  form 
the  result  is  anything  but  good  and  in  fact  is  abso- 
lutely dangerous.  If  the  sewage  can  be  discharged 
into  a  tidal  bay  or  directly  into  the  ocean  it  can 


58 

there  be  rendered  harmless  by  dilution  but  some 
day  there  will  be  a  stop  put  to  that  and  the  day  is 
not  far  distant. 

It  costs  money  to  handle  large  quantities  of  sew- 
age and  therefore  as  necessity  compels  the  sewage 
to  be  treated  to  rid  it  of  its  harmful  qualities  the 
separate  system  of  sewerage  will  grow  in  favor  as 
it  provides  the  least  possible  amount  of  liquid 
matter  to  be  treated.  The  surface  water,  as  stated 
before,  can  be  disposed  of  anywhere  without  harm. 

There  are  four  methods  in  general  use  for  the 
disposal  of  sewage.  Briefly  described  they  are  as 
follows,  it  being  borne  in  mind  that  many  modifica- 
tions of  each  kind  exist. 


This  method  separates    the  solids 
MECHANICAL     and     fluid     matter     by    straining. 
SEPARATION      The    liquid    is   discharged    into   a 
stream  or  lake  comparatively  color- 
less and  with  slight  odor.     It  is  not  entirely  harm- 
less however. 


This  is  an  improvement  on    me- 

CHEMICAL         chanical    separation.      The   sew- 

PRECIPITATION     age    is   run*  into   tanks,    and    a 

chemical    precipitant    is     mixed 

with  it.      All  solids  are  deposited  and   a    clear  odor- 


59 

less  effluent  is  discharged. 

In  both  the  preceding  methods  there  is  a  material 
left,  known  as  "sludge,"  which  is  a  nuisance  to  get 
rid  of.  Sometimes  it  is  spread  over  land  and 
allowed  to  dry  and  is  then  plowed  in.  Sometimes 
it  is  dried  and  burned  in  kilns.  Sometimes  farmers 
take  it  as  a  fertilizer  and  sometimes  fertilizer 
makers  take  it  away.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 
sell  the  stuff  and  few  places  can  handle  it  without 
some  expense. 


The  sewage  is   run   on    to  land   for 

BROAD         irrigation.      The  land  is    used    for 

IRRIGATION     raising    fruits    and   vegetables    and 

truck  gardening  generally.  Some- 
times the  land  can  be  rented  for  the  purpose  by  the 
municipality  and  sometimes  it  is  purchased  and 
rented  out  to  truck  gardeners.  Properly  planned 
and  executed  this  has  in  some  places  proven  a 
cheap  and  efficient  method  of  disposal.  But  there 
are  many  people  who  object  to  eating  anything 
raised  on  a  sewage  farm  and  such  farms  have  been 
known  to  be  a  nuisance. 


This  is  a  cheap   method   and  meets 
FILTRATION     with  more  approval  than  broad  irri- 
gation.      A   piece  of  land    with    a 
porous  soil  is  selected  and  drained   or  regular  filter 


6o 

beds  may  be  constructed  of  cinders,  coke,  gravel 
etc.  At  intervals  the  sewage  is  discharged  on  to 
the  filter  beds  and  allowed  to  percolate  through. 
It  is  relieved  of  impurities  in  suspension  by  strain- 
ing and  the  slow  movement  through  the  filtering 
medium  gives  time  for  thorough  purification  of  all 
impurities  in  solution  by  bacterial  action,  such  as  is 
present  in  all  properly  constructed  filters. 


The  name  indicates  it  to  be  a  putre- 

SEPTIC         factive    operation    and    bacterial    in 

.     TANK  action.     Really  it  is  partly  bacterial 

TREATMENT     and   partly   chemical.     It    was    the 

result  of  a  search  for  a  method  to 
liquify  the  solid  matters  in  sewage  and  assist  the 
filtering  process.  There  are,  as  explained  in  the 
chapter  on  streets,  two  kinds  of  germs  or  bacteria, 
the  one  living  on  live  animal  matter  and  blood  and 
termed  "pathogenic."  These  are  the  germs  which 
endanger  human  life.  The  other  group  can  only 
grow  in  dead  or  decaying  matter  and  this  is  again 
divided  into  great  groups  which  are  known  as 
"anaerobic"  which  exist  best  in  the  dark  and 
"aerobic"  which  exist  best  in  the  light.  Both  are 
needed  to  complete  the  purification  of  sewage  and 
wastes.  The  sewage  may  be  taken  into  a  closed 
tank  where  light  and  air  are  excluded  as  much  as 
possible  and  stored  there  precisely  as  waste  matters 
are  stored  in  cess  pools  and  privy  vaults.  This 
gives  the  anaerobic  bacteria  an  opportunity  to  get  to 
work  and  if  allowed  to  work  long  enough  they  con- 


6i 

vert  all  the  solid  matter  into  liquid  and  into  ash, 
which  is  harmless,  therefore  the  process  is  akin  to 
combustion,  which  leaves  an  ash  residue.  The 
liquid  allowed  to  get  out  into  the  light  and  air  is 
attacked  by  aerobic  bacteria  which  extract  all  the 
harmful  matter  from  the  liquid  and  it  passes  off  into 
the  air  in  harmless  gas  leaving  the  purified  liquid 
to  flow  into  any  water  course  as  clear  as,  and  some- 
times clearer,  than  the  water  into  which  it  goes. 

The  action  of  the  bacteria  having  been  demon- 
strated in  the  closed  tanks  it  remained  for  some  one 
to  discover  that  the  same  action  takes  place  in  open 
tanks.  So  there  are  two  kinds  used,  the  closed  and 
the  open.  The  real  value  of  the  septic  tank  treat- 
ment is  that  it  destroys  suspended  matter  without 
forming  any  great  amount  of  sludge.  It  also  acts 
largely  to  prevent  a  coating  over  the  bacteria  beds 
with  a  layer  of  cellulose  material  more  or  less  im- 
pervious to  water.  It  also  forms  substances  that 
are  easily  acted  upon  by  the  aerobic,  or  nitrifying 
bacteria.  There  is  a  further  advantage,  in  that  in 
all  systems  of  filtration  of  sewage  there  comes  a 
time  when  the  filter  is  clogged  to  a  certain  extent 
and  the  little  bacteria  which  demand  light  die  off 
and  the  ones  which  work  in  the  dark  without  light 
and  air  increase  too  rapidly.  As  both  kinds  are 
needed  it  may  be  seen  that  the  filters  then  do  im- 
perfect work.  By  allowing  the  bacteria  which  pre- 
fer darkness  and  no  air  to  work  in  the  septic  tank 
and  then  expose  the  effluent  to  the  air  and  light  and 


62 


run  it  over  filter  beds  where  the  nitrifying  bacteria 
can  get  to  work  the  purification  process  is  made 
complete. 


CHAPTER  III. 
One   of  the   first   questions   asked   by   a 

WATER     possible  resident,  or   manufacturer,  who 

SUPPLY  may  locate  in  a  growing  town,  is  in 
regard  to  the  water  supply.  He  wants 
to  locate  in  a  place  where  he  can  get  a  plentiful 
supply  of  water  for  manufacturing  purposes  and  for 
protection  in  case  of  fire.  And  of  course  if  there  is 
a  plentiful  supply  of  water  he  also  inquires  about 
a  sewer  system,  for  one  is  needed  to  carry  off  the 
waste. 

Water  is  needed  for  drinking,  manufacturing 
purposes,-  laundries  and  baths,  street  sprinkling, 
sewer  flushing,  irrigating  lawns,  fire  protection,  etc., 
and  if  it  is  not  good  for  all  of  these  uses  it  is  not  a 
good  commercial  water.  It  may  be  all  right  for 
cooking  and  drinking  yet  unfit  for  manufacturing, 
or  vice  versa.  It  is  difficult  to  get  a  water  perfect 
in  all  respects  but  good  water  of  an  average  quality 
can  generally  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantity  for 
any  small  place  at  no  great  expense.  If  it  is 
polluted  or  impure  it  must  be  purified  if  it  is  found 
to  be  impossible  to  get  a  better  supply  by  going  a 
little  farther. 

Greater  attention  is  now  paid  to  the  purity  of  the 
water  supply  than  it  was  a  few  years  ago  in  the 
United  States.  Good  sources  of  supply  are  less 
difficult  to  procure  and  some  artificial  purification  is 
rendered  necessary,  for  people  today  will  not  take 


64 

readily  the  water  their  grandfathers  would  have 
been  satisfied  with.  There  are  two  systems  of 
filtering  in  vogue,  the  first  called  slow  sand  filtra- 
tion, and  by  some  the  English  system.  The  other, 
rapid  filtration  or  the  American  system  of  mechani- 
cal filtration.  In  the  slow  sand  filtration  system 
the  water  is  led  into  filter  beds  where  it  percolates 
slowly  through  the  filtering  medium.  On  the 
surface  of  the  sand  a  kind  of  slime,  composed  of 
finely  divided  clay  is  formed.  A  felted  slimy  mass 
of  algae,  and  various  bacilli,  accumulates  in  this 
cultivation  bed  of  clay  and  here  the  main  purifica- 
tion of  the  water  takes  place.  It  is  therefore 
necessary,  for  the  proper  working  of  the  sand  filter, 
that  this  jelly  layer  be  formed,  when  the  process  of 
purification  goes  on  by  the  action  of  the  nitrifying 
organisms  until  the  filter  becomes  clogged  by 
the  suspended  impurities  and  the  flow  of  water  gets 
scanty.  It  is  then  cleansed  and  put  in  shape  for 
further  use  by  skimming  off  the  surface  layer  and 
putting  on  a  fresh  coating  of  sand.  The  water  is 
turned  in  again  and  allowed  to  waste  until  a  new 
jelly  has  formed  when  the  effluent  is  turned  into  the 
city  mains.  In  some  places  a  lot  of  the  old  sand  is 
put  back  with  the  new  in  order  to  hasten  the  forma- 
tion of  the  jelly.  Great  numbers  of  filter  beds  are 
required  as  the  work  is  done  intermittently  in  order 
that  the  beds  may  be  kept  in  the  highest  possible 
state  of  efficiency.  The  system  of  slow  sand  filtra- 
tion is  therefore  expensive  and  is  better  suited  to 
very  large  cities  than  to  smaller  places. 

The  mechanical  system  of  filtration  is   an   Ameri- 


65 

can  invention  and  consists  of  tanks  containing 
finely  pulverized  quartz  as  a  filtering  medium.  A 
chemical  coagulent  is  added  to  the  water  in  small 
quantities  to  form  the  jelly  and  it  is  not  therefore 
necessary  to  wait  so  long  for  the  filter  to  get  into 
action.  When  it  requres  cleaning  the  flow  of  water 
is  reversed  in  the  filter  and  by  machinery  the  sand 
is  stirred  up  until  the  water  running  out  is  clear. 
The  water  is  set  running  the  right  way  again,  the 
coagulent  added,  and  in  a  short  time  the  filter  is 
working  at  its  full  capacity.  For  a  small  town  it  is 
better  than  the  slow  sand  filtration  method  and  it 
may.  be  better  in  larger  places  but  more  experiments 
will  have  to  be  made  before  a  positive  opinion  can 
be  given. 

The  primary  idea  of  a  filter  was  a  strainer  where 
the  suspended  matter  was  taken  out.  When  the 
matter  was  thoroughly  understood  it  was  found 
there  was  a  bacterial  action  also  and  the  ordinary 
household  filter  instead  of  being  a  protection  was  an 
absolute  danger,  for  it  cultivated  colonies  of  danger- 
ous bacilli.  A  household  filter  in  which  the  filtering 
medium  is  a  baked  clay  or  porcelain  is  the  only 
kind  to  use.  Dealers  often  say  the  way  to  clean 
them  is  to  take  out  the  porcelain  once  a  week  and 
wash  it.  Such  advice  is  dangerous.  The  only  way 
to  clean  it  is  to  boil  it  by  placing  in  cold  water  after 
washing  and  putting  in  a  pot  on  the  fire  and  allow- 
ing the  water  to  come  to  a  boil  and  boil  briskly  until 
the  porcelain  is  hot.  Then  let  it  cool  slowly.  If 
the  porcelain  is  cracked  get  a  new  one. 

Lake     water    is    a    doubtful    source    of    supply. 


66 


Ground  well   water  is   sometimes   safe    to   use   and 
generally  unsafe.     The  well  in  the   thickly  settled 


Cut  loaned  by  the  KEYSTONE  DRILLEti  CO.,  Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 

community  is  generally  dangerous  and  the  open 
well  cannot  be  condemned  in  too  strong  terms.  If 
a  well  is  used  it  should  be  closed  and  the  water 
pumped  from  it  for  ordinary  use. 

Driven  wells  are  frequently  used  as  a  source  of 
supply  for  a  town  and  they  are  a  good  source  if  the 
quality  of  water  is  all  right.  For  this  reason  when 
deciding  to  adopt  the  driven  well  system  a  careful 
examination  should  be  made  chemically  and  biolog- 
ically of  the  water  and  an  examination  made  as  to 
the  possible  sources  of  supply  of  the  sand  and 
gravel  bed  into  which  the  wells  are  driven.  A 
large  cistern  may  be  constructed  and  several  wells 
driven  in  the  bottom  of  it  and  the  water  pumped 
from  the  cistern  or  the  wells  may  be  driven  in  a 
regular  series  and  connected  with  a  main  pipe  from 
which  the  water  will  be  pumped. 


67 

When  the  quantity  required  is  not  great  the  best 
system  is  by  pumps  with  a  standpipe  or  tank  con- 
taining at  least  twenty-four  hours  supply.  The 
tank  furnishes  the  pressure  except  in  case  of  fire 
when  it  is  better  to  disconnect  it  and  let  the  pump 
force  the  water  directly  into  the  supply  main. 
Ordinarily  the  pumps  need  only  be  used  to  keep 
the  tank  filled  and  there  should  be  some  sort  of 
electrical  indicator  in  the  pump  house  so  the  en- 
gineer need  not  pump  too  much  and  cause  the 
tanks  to  overflow. 

With  a  town  of  over  3,000  inhabitants  a  direct 
pumping  system  may  be  preferable,  with  several 
stand  pipes  in  different  parts  of  town,  if  it  is  very 
hilly  or  broken.  The  stand  pipes  will  be  supplied 
by  the  force  main  and  each  supply  its  own  district. 
There  should  be  stand  pipes  or  tanks  to  supply 
districts  ordinarily  supplied  by  direct  pumping,  in 
case  of  the  pump  being  required  to  work  in  other 
districts  when  a  fire  breaks  out  and  more  pressure 
is  needed.  Each  district  can  thus  be  as  inde- 
pendent as  though  in  different  cities. 

With  a  large  city  a  gravity  system  may  be  less 
expensive  than  a  pumping  system  but  it  will 
require  careful  figuring  in  any  event.  With  a 
gravity  system  reservoirs  are  generally  used  in- 
stead of  tanks  and  stand  pipes.  It  is  useful  to 
remember  that  when  Surface  water  from  streams 
and  lakes  is  stored  in  reservoirs  that  the  reservoirs 
must  never  be  covered  but  should  always  be  ex- 
posed to  the  light  and  air.  When  water  from  wells 
and  underground  sources  is  stored  in  reservoirs  it 


68 

must  be  covered  to  exclude  all  light.     This   to   pre- 
vent the  growth  of  algae. 

Artesian  wells  are  good  enough  in  their  way  when 
no  other  source  of  supply  is  available,  but  it  is 
seldom  that  a  well  can  be  obtained  of  sufficient  flow 
to  supply  even  a  small  place.  A  town  considering 
the  proposition  of  obtaining  water  from  artesian 
wells  must  proceed  slowly  and  carefully  in  order 
that  after  the  hole  is  bored  and  the  pipes  laid,  the 
volume  of  water  to  depend  upon  will  justify  the 
expenditure  of  the  money  spent  to  secure  it. 

Salt  water  is  used  in  sea  side  cities  to  sprinkle 
streets  and  has  been  found  to  be  very  much  superior 
to  fresh  water  for  the  purpose.  It  has  been  found 
of  doubtful  benefit  in  extinguishing  fires  as  a  build- 
ing well  soaked  with  it  never  dries  thoroughly. 

A  pumping  plant  should  generally  be  in  dupli- 
cate so  in  case  of  breakdowns  there  will  be  no 
stoppage  of  the  supply.  This  is  not  so  important 
where  the  plant  does  not  have  to  work  more  than  a 
few  hours  each  day  or  for  a  day  or  so  in  the  week. 
For  small  towns  and  generally  throughout  the  west 
where  fuel  is  scarce  the  gas  or  oil  engine  connected 
to  a  power  pump  is  coming  rapidly  into  favor  The 
writer  has  recommended  their  use  and  believes  they 
are  the  best  thing  in  many  cases  for  the  service. 
They  are  useful  in  larger  places  also  where  there 
may  be  isolated  districts  to*  serve  of  limited  area. 
In  such  places  a  separate  pumping  station  with 
elevated  tank  can  be  placed  and  the  water  pumped 
from  the  main  to  this  tank,  which  communicates 
with  the  pipe  system  in  the  small  district  as  an 


69 

independent  supply.  Again  they  may  be  nsed  in 
towns  where  the  water  company  has  a  contract  to  fur- 
nish a  certain  high  pressure  in  case  of  fire  and  the 
pumps  do  not  work  constantly.  The  pumps  may 
supply  tanks  or  stand  pipes  at  a  sufficient  elevation 
to  furnish  a  good  pressure  for  domestic  use  and  the 
smaller  gas  or  oil  engine  may  pump  from  these 
tanks  sufficient  to  fill  a  smaller  tank  at  a  higher 
elevation  which  can  be  connected  with  the  main 
system  of  pipes  in  case  of  fire,  a  check  valve  pre- 
venting the  backing  of  the  water  into  the  lower 
tank.  As  this  tank  for  fire  purposes  may  not  be 
used  once  in  six  months  and  might  contain  water 
enough  to  last  a  half  dozen  fire  streams  an  hour  or 
two  a  small  engine  will  do  the  work  at  a  minimum 
of  attention  and  expense. 


It  is  not  safe  to  figure  on  less  than  30 
QUANTITY     gallons   per   capita   per   day,  and   the 
OF  amount  in  a  manufacturing  town  may 

WATER  reach  sixty  to  eighty  gallons  per  da}r 
per  capita.  Estimates  based  on  the 
total  population.  Some  American  cities  use  much 
more.  A  leading  authority  has  carefully  investi- 
gated the  use  of  water  in  American  cities  and  his 
conclusions  are  that  sixty  per  cent  of  the  water 
pumped  is  wasted.  By  metering  carefully  the  water 
pumped  and  by  careful  investigation  of  the  use  of 
water  it  has  been  found  that  the  above  large  per- 
centage is  not  accounted  for.  In  Europe  wher^ 


70 

there  is  more  careful  and  judicious  oversight  it  is 
stated  that  fully  ninety  per  cent  of  the  water  is 
accounted  for. 

The  waste  exists  all  through  the  system  by  reason 
of  careless  w,ork  in  putting  the  pipes  in  place  and  also 
by  reason  of  the  faulty  work  in  making  house  con- 
nections. The  writer  has  seen  plumbers  connecting 
houses  when  the  main  was  of  thin  wrought  iron  and 
there  being  a  leak  under  the  saddle  they  beat 
around  it  with  their  hammers  until  the  flow 
stopped — not  adding  anything  to  the  excellence  of 
the  nearest  joint  in  the  main  which  may  have  been 
defective  at  first.  The  waste  also  exists  in  the 
interior  plumbing  of  the  house  and  when  a  water 
works  system  is  installed  in  a  town  there  should  be 
a  first  class  ordinance  passed  to  regulate  this  work 
and  all  cocks  and  faucets  should  be  of  a  certain 
standard  of  excellence.  But  a  very  large  part  of 
the  waste  exists  by  reason  of  the  householder  being 
careless  becaus^  he  pays  so  much  a  month  no 
matter  how  much  he  uses. 

The  only  remedy  is  the  introduction  of  meters. 
An  immediate  saving  in  running  expenses  is 
noticed.  There  is  a  reduction  in  revenue  of  course 
but  the  resultant  is  a  saving  of  cost  and  a  conse- 
quent increase  in  actual  profits.  The  careful 
economical  citizen  does  his  best  to  reduce  his  water 
bill  and  after  he  becomes  accustomed  to  the  meter 
finds  that  he  does  not  have  to  skimp,  as  the  mini- 
mum meter  charge  allows  him  plenty  of  water  for 
every  ordinary  purpose.  Wherever  the  meter 
system  has  been  introduced  it  has  been  favorably 


received  and  its  use  extended.  There  has  existed 
oftentimes  a  prejudice  in  the  mind  of  the  consumer 
against  a  meter  for  fear  it  will  register  in  favor  of 
the  company  but  a  little  reflection  will  show  him 
that  as  it  wears  much  water  must  pass  through  it 
without  being  registered,  so  if  the  new  meter  regis- 
ters in  his  favor  it  will  be  apt  to  do  so  as  it  grows 
older.  In  some  places  a  tank  is  placed  in  the  water 
company's  office  which  contains  exactly  ten  cubic 
feet  of  water  at  ordinary  temperature.  A  house 
meter  is  attached  to  the  supply  pipe  and  water 
measured  into  the  tank  before  the  eyes  of  the  con- 
sumer and  he  can  read  the  result  himself.  With  a 
nieter  geared  to  99  per  cent  there  is  no  fear  of  the 
test  not  satisfying  him  and  he  can  go  with  the  man 
and  see  that  same  meter  installed  in  front  of  his 
house  on  the  supply  pipe. 

A  recent  report  by  the  board  of  water  commis- 
sioners of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  says  "meters  act 
as  mechanical  inspectors  of  plumbing  and  as  such 
are  less  objectionable  to  consumers  than  individual 
inspectors  as  well  as  being  more  effectual  and  relia- 
ble." 

It  is  possible  to  obtain  in  almost  every  city  relia- 
ble house  meters  at  moderate  prices  and  their 
general  introduction  will  reduce  the  cost  of  living 
and  do  away  with  enormous  waste. 


72 


Good  fire  hose  will  cost  at  least  Socts, 

GENERAL     a  lineal   foot.      The  life  of  fire  hose  is 

USE          not  long  and  when  it  is    observed  how 

rapidly    effective    pressure    is   lost  by 

long  streams  no  argument  is  required  to   show   that 

large  mains   are   an   advantage    in    a    water    works 

system.     The   following  table  is  instructive: 

FIRE  STREAMS. 

Pressures  required  at  nozzle  and  at  pump,  with  quantity  and  pressure  of  water  necessary 
10  throw  water  various  distances  through  different  sized  nozzles,  using  2  1-2  inch  rubber 
hose  and  smooth  nozzles.  G.  A.  ELLIS,  C.  E. 


SIZE  OF  NOZZLES. 

1  INCH. 

1J4  INCH. 

1^  INCH 

\%  INCH. 

40 

48 
155 

IIP 
79 

60 

73 
189 
142 
108 

80 

97 
219 
168 
131 

100 

121 

245 
186 
148 

: 

196 
113 
81 

i 

81 

2  :  -o 

148 
112 

. 

10S 
277 
175 

135 

100 
135 

,?io 

193 
1=17 

40 

61 

242 
118 

82 

60 

92 

207 
156 
115 

SO 

123 
342 
1X6 
142 

100 

154 
383 
207 
164 

40 

71 

293 
124 
1  85 

60 

107 
3-8 
106 
118 

80 

144 
413 

200 
146 

1(10 

180 
462 
224 

16« 

*Pressure  at  pump  or  hydr'nt 
100  ft.  2  1-2  in.  rubber  hose 

Horizontal  distance  thrown.. 
Vertical  distance  thrown  

*For  greater  lengths  of  2  1-2  hose  the  increased  friction  can  readily  be  obtained  by 
noting  the  differences  between  the  above  given  "pressure  at  nozzle"  and  "pressure  at  pump 
or  hydrant  with  100  feet  of  hose."  For  instance,  if  it  requires  at  hydrant  or  pump  8  pounds 
more  pressure  than  it  does  at  nozzle  to  overcome  the  friction  when  pumping  througli  100  feet 
of  2  1-2  inch  hose  (using  1-inch  nozzle,  with  40  pounds  pressure  at  said  nozzle);  then  it 
requires  16  pounds  pressure  to  overcome  the  friction  in  forcing  through  200  feet  of  same  size 
hose. 

Insurance  rates  are  governed  by  the  efficiency 
of  the  plant  in  any  town  and  a  good  show- 
ing of  large  mains  has  its  effect.  If  a  volume  of 
water  flowing  through  a  two  inch  pipe  had  to  flow 
in  the  same  time  through  a  one  inch  pipe  the 
velocity  would  be  increased  four  times  but  the  fric- 
tion sixteen  times.  No  mains  should  be  less  than 
six  inches  in  a  town  and  eight  inches  is  much  better 
if  the  cost  can  be  afforded.  The  writer  realizes  how 
difficult  it  is  for  many  small  places  with  a  limited 
bonding  power  to  put  in  large  mains  and  therefore 
cannot  urge  the  putting  in  of  larger  than  six  or 


73 

eight  inch  pipes.  It  is  sensible  and  economical 
however  to  have  as  mnch  large  diameter  pipe  as 
possible  and  to  have  very  little  three  and  fonr  inch 
pipe. 

It  is  a  badly  designed  water  works  which  has  not 
a  double  circulation.  Pipes  should  be  run  down 
"cross  streets  often  to  connect  pipes  on  parallel 
streets  and  whenever  a  pipe  stops  it  should  stop  at 
a  street  and  from  the  end  a  pipe  should  go  through 
the  cross  street  and  connect  the  parallel  pipe  line. 
This  helps  protect  the  purity  of  the  water  by  the 

avoidance  of  dead   ends,   lessens   the   evil   effects   of 

• 

water  ram,  permits  a  better  flow  to  points  where 
needed  in  times  of  extraordinary  draught  and 
allows  repairs  to  be  made  in  districts  of  limited  area 
vyithout  inconveniencing  many  patrons. 

Nothing  shows  the  amateur  hand  so  quickly  in  a 
water  works  system  as  the  presence  of  dead  ends 
and  the  absence  of  a  proper  number  of  gates  and 
valves.  The  proper  number  of  gates  and  valves  is 
not  a  difficult  thing  to  determine.  There  should  be 
a  gate  on  every  lead  of  pipe  at  all  intersections  so 
that  at  a  street  crossing  where  four  pipes  come 
together  there  should  be  four  gates,  one  at  each 
property  line.  There  should  be  a  gate  on  every 
hydrant  lead  so  the  dydrants  can  be  repaired  with- 
out interfering  with  the  working  of  the  system. 
With  a  double  circulation  and  plenty  of  gates,  water 
can  be  turned  off  in  one  block  at  any  time  by  the 
closing  of  two  gates  and  repairs  made  anywhere  in 
that  block,  the  only  inconvenience  suffered  being  by 
those  who  are  in  the  small  district  served  by  that 


74 

pipe.  This  saves  time  and  money.  The  writer  has 
lived  in  a  town  where  there  are  so  few  gates  (and 
no  gates  on  the  hydrants),  that  whenever  a  hydrant 
breaks  a  notice  is  posted  and  also  put  in  the  papers 
that  water  will  be  turned  off  at  ten  o'clock  p.  m.,  in 
the  system  to  permit  the  hydrant  to  be  repaired. 
At  ten  o'clock  promptly  the  water  is  turned  off  and 
the  eighteen  hydrants  in  the  system  all  opened  and 
the  gutters  flow  until  the  pipes  are  empty  so  the 
repairs  can  be  made.  As  the  -hydrants,  as  well  as 
other  parts  of  the  system,  need  frequent  repairs  the 
expense  is  much  greater  in  the  course  of  a  year  than 
the  cost  of  an  adequate  number  of  gates.  Even  if 
the  company  did  not  want  to  put  in  a  gate  at  every 
street  intersection  and  at  every  hydrant  a  few  gates 
sub-dividing  the  town  into  districts  would  help,  as 
during  the  time  the  repairs  are  being  made  all  the 
pipes  are  empty  and  if  a  fire  were  to  break  out  the 
result  would  be  disastrous.  Such  a  state  of  affairs 
is  bad  for  the  town  also  as  any  citizen  might  have 
good  cause  for  action  against  the  municipality  if  he 
suffered  damage,  and  it  could  be  shown  that  the 
council  was  neglectful  in  not  insisting  upon  the 
water  company  living  up  to  its  contract  and  giving 
proper  fire  protection. 

It  is  well  when  water  has  to  be  pumped  for  supply 
that  economy  in  operation  be  carefully  looked  into. 
For  example  it  is  well  to  have  the  pressure  for  fire 
purposes  as  near  one  hundred  pounds  to  the  square 
inch  as  possible.  For  domestic  use  thirty-five  to 
forty  pounds  will  be  ample.  There  is  a  water 
works  system  in  the  writer's  mind  which  can  be 


75 

used  as  an  example  to  show  how  a  saving  might 
have  been  effected  in  operation  during  the  eight  or 
nine  years  it  has  been  in  operation.  The  contract 
with  the  city  required  a  pressure  of  ninety-five 
pounds  at  the  hydrants  in  event  of  tire  and  to 
secure  this  the  company  constructed  a  reservoir  one 
hundred  feet  in  diameter  and  sixteen  feet  deep  at 
an  elevation  of  two  hundred  and  twenty  feet  above 
the  lowest  part  of  the  town.  All  the  water  used 
has  been  pumped  to  that  height.  When  first  put  in 
operation  very  little  pumping  was  required.  Now 
the  pumps  work  every  day  and  nearly  all  day  long. 
It  is  proposed  to  construct  another  reservoir  at  half 
the  height  for  the  use  of  the  lower  portion  of  the 
town  and  leave  the  upper  one  for  the  higher  level. 
Thus  the  pressure  will  be  uniform  all  over  town  but 
the  lower  portion  only  will  have  the  fire  pressure, 
as  arrangements  are  to  be  made  to  get  the  pressure 
from  the  upper  reservoir  in  case  of  fire. 

If  the  lower  reservoir  had  been  constructed  at 
first  there  would  have  been  a  wonderful  saving  in 
operating  expenses  for  eight  years  past.  As  the 
pumps  were  not  working  all  the  time  and  it  took 
some  time  to  get  up  steam  and  direct  pumping  into 
the  main  in  case  of  fire  would  have  been  unsatisfac- 
tory, a  small  tank  could  have  been  placed  at  the 
higher  elevation,  for  use  in  case  of  fire,  with  check 
valve  to  prevent  a  backing  into  the  lower  reservoir 
when  the  high  pressure  was  used.  The  calculation 
for  the  size  of  the  tank  would  have  been  easy. 
Referring  to  the  table  of  fire  streams  it  will  be  seen 
that  a  2^  inch  stream  with  a  i  inch  nozzle  and 


76 

8o  pounds  pressure  at  the  nozzle  will  deliver  219 
gallons  per  minute.  Four  such  streams  will  deliver 
876  gallons  per  minute  and  if  the  fire  lasted  two 
hours  there  would  have  been  used  105,120  gallons 
of  water.  It  is  highly  improbable  that  any  fire  in 
that  town  would  have  lasted  two  hours,  and  as  the 
system  is  arranged  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  have  thrown  four  streams  on  any  fire  at  one  time, 
the  hydrants  being  too  far  apart  and  the  system  be- 
ing poorly  arranged  as  respects  circulation.  There 
have  been  very  few  fires  in  the  town. 

Now  the  supply  of  the  upper  level  is  being  con- 
sidered, fire  protection  can  be  assured  by  direct 
pumping  or  by  the  construction  of  an  upper  tank  at 
an  elevation  to  give  95  pounds  pressure  there  and 
the  town  can  have  two  independent  systems,  each 
with  about  45  pounds  domestic  pressure,  and  the 
lower,  or  business,  level  assured  of  a  possible  fire 
pressure  of  from  95  to  140  pounds,  and  the  upper 
level  assured  of  a  fire  pressure  of  95  pounds.  But 
the  waste  of  money  involved  in  pumping  water  no 
feet  higher  than  was  necessary  for  eight  to  nine 
years  can  never  be  returned.  It  is  an  absolute  loss. 

The  question  of  material  for  pipes  need  only  be 
briefly  touched  upon.  Cast  iron  has  been  for  years 
the  standard  material  for  piping  systems  and  with 
many  engineers  is  yet  a  favorite.  In  small  cities 
the  writer  confesses*  to  a  preference  for  wrought 
iron.  Cast  iron  pipe  represents  rather  too  much 
dead  weight  compared  with  their  strength,  as  the 
best  method  of  obtaining  long  service  before  destruc- 
tion by  rust  is  to  make  them  thick.  This  to  towns 


77 

where  freight  is  an  item  is  an  insuperable  objection 
to  their  use.  It  is  very  hard  to  prevent  incrustation  . 
in  cast  iron  pipes  and  being  to  a  certain  extent  brit- 
tle they  are  in  greater  danger  of  breakage  from 
"water  ram"  than  wrought  iron  pipe.  Cast  iron 
pipe  is  usually  in  12  foot  lengths,  measuring  from 
mouth  to  mouth  of  the  bells. 

Wrought  iron  pipe  needs  protective  coatings  more 
than  cast  iron  to  protect  it  from  corrosion.  It  re- 
tains these  protective  coatings  badly  unless  they  are 
very  carefully  made  and  applied  and  then  the  life  is 
as  great  as  that  of  any  pipe.  It  possesses  grcater 
strength  in  proportion  to  its  weight  than  cast  iron 
and  a  difference  in  cost  in  its  favor  is  generally  ow- 
ing to  freight  rates.  It  is  not  troubled  with  in- 
crustation to  the  extent  that  cast  iron  is  and  coming 
in  longer  sections  than  cast  iron  requires  fewer 
joints,  less  lead  and  packing,  less  labor  in  laying 
and  is  cheaper  to  maintain.  Lock  joint,  seamless, 
wrought  iron  pipe  is  superior  to  lap  and  riveted  pipe 
owing  to  the  interior  smoothness  enabling  an  even 
flow  to  be  maintained. 

Wooden  pipe  is  advertised  considerably.  When 
made  of  California  redwood  staves  and  banded  with 
iron  it  is  a  desirable  pipe  in  diameters  greater  than 
12  inches.  It  is  lasting  and  can  be  made  to  with- 
stand any  pressure.  There  are  pipes  made  of  wood 
constructed  by  boring  a  hole  through  a  log  of  small 
diameter  and  wrapping  spirally  with  iron  bands, 
which  have  sometimes  proven  satisfactory  and 
sometimes  have  not.  The  writer  has  investigated 
this  pipe  and  believes  that  if  it  were  made  of 


pieces  taken  from  large  sections  cut  from  near  the 
heart  of  big  trees  and  then  wrapped  spirally  with 
strap  iron  and  asphalted,  it  would  be  preferable  to 
the  pipe  usually  seen,  which  is  made  by  boring  a 
hole  through  a  small  sapling.  The  life  of  the  pipe 
then  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  tree  from 
which  made.  The  hole  may  use  up  all  or  nearly  all 
of  the  heart  wood  and  leave  the  soft  outside  wood  to 
withstand  the  effects  of  moisture. 

Sewer  pipe  of  vitrified  clay  is  used  in  many  places 
as  a  conduit  where  it  has  been  found  possible  to  lay 


STANDPIPE. 

Cut  loaned   by   Springfield  Boiler  and  Manufacturing 
Company.  Springfield,  III 


it  on  an  even  grade  and  therefore  it  does  not  have 
to  work  under  pressure.  It  has  been  used  in  a  very 
few  places  under  slight  pressure.  The  writer  be- 
lieves it  has  not  always  proven  satisfactory  in  actual 
use.  Where  used  it  has  been  in  situations  in  which 
a  ditch  or  wooden  flume  might  ordinarily  be  used  in 
preference  to  metal  pipe,  owing  to  expense,  and  is 
advantageous  in  being  a  closed  conduit. 

Rates  can  only  be  fixed  by  taking  into  account  all 


79 

items  of  expense  entering  into  the  supplying  of 
water.  Rates  based  on  a  comparison  with  neigh- 
boring cities  often  work  an  injustice.  Kvery  city 
should  own  its  own  waterworks  but  politics  should 
be  kept  out  of  the  administration.  On  this  subject 
(Municipal  Ownership)  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Chapter  VI.  Under  municipal  ownership  water  can 
be  furnished  at  low  cost,  or  at  a  profit  or  at  a  fearful 
expense,  so  much  so  that  the  people  might  be  bet- 
ter off  with  a  system  under  private  ownership. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  cost  of  street    lighting    does 

STREET  not  seem  to  vary   by   any  known 

LIGHTING          rule.      Investigation  shows   such 

AND  FII^E         wide    differences  in   the  same  lo- 

DEPARTMENT     cality    that    sometimes     hints    of 

collusion  between  councilman  and 
officials  of  the  light  company  may  be  warranted. 
The  policy  of  the  private  company  is  of  course  to 
ucharge  all  the  traffic  will  bear,"  and  as  rates  are 
often  fixed  by  simple  comparison  of  rates  in  near-by 
cities  there  is  danger  of  innocent  and  unsuspecting 
men  of  honest  intention  being  hoodwinked  by  show- 
ings from  places  where  the  administration  of  affairs 
is  not  so  fair  and  honest  as  in  their  town.  Yet  there 
is  also  the  danger  of  the  lighting  company  being 
unintentionally  wronged  by  a  comparison  unjust 
and  too  one-sided.  But  if  the  rates  are  fixed  too  low 
the  company  goes  into  the  courts  and  shows  its 
books  whereupon  the  judge  is  liable  to  fix  the  rates. 
Owing  to  this  some  cities  have  a  pleasant  little  way 
of  fixing  the  rates  at  the  point  which  is  one  notch 
higher  than  the  litigacion  point  and  thereby  secure 
a  low  priced  service — which  is  apt  to  be  very  costly 
in  reality,  considering  service  and  breakages,  or  pre- 
tended breakages,  or  by  the  fixing  of  a  schedule  by 
the  company  which  does  not  inure  to  the  benefit  of 
the  city.  No  just  comparison  can  be  made  without 


8i 

a  full  knowledge  as  to  the  number  of  hours  of  burn- 
ing. A  contract  between  the  light  company  and 
the  city  should  be  specific  and  in  detail  and  should 
be  submitted  to  some  man  who  has  a  knowledge  of 
the  business  and  the  technical  terms  used,  before  it 
is  signed.  Claims  of  a  lessening  of  cost  under  mu- 
nicipal ownership  are  not  always  borne  out  on  in- 
vestigation, as  municipal  book-keeping  leaves  much 
to  be  desired.  Many  men  do  not  seem  to  consider 
that  municipal  works  are  as  liable  to  deterioation 
by  time  as  private  works  and  therefore  do  not  write 
off  depreciation  every  year. 

The  invariable  fault  is  to  fall  back  on  taxation  to 
make  up  deficits,  pay  bonds,  etc.  While  this  is  per- 
haps correct  the  amounts  the  taxpayers  have  to  pay 
on  account  of  the  bonds  and  other  expenses  incurred 
by  reason  of  municipal  ownership  should  show  on 
the  books  of  the  plant  as  items  of  expense. 

The  cost  of  lighting  with  arc  lights  varies  from 
$55  to  $136  per  year  and  the  schedules  and  average 
hours  of  burning  vary  as  much  more.  But  it  may 
be  stated  that  in  a  detailed  examination  of  the 
schedules  it  does  not  show  that  the  hours  vary  as 
the  cost  exactly. 

For  a  small  town  kerosene  lamps  on  p@sts  have 
been  used  with  only  fair  satisfaction,  until  a  gas 
plant  or  electric  plant  has  been  put  in.  But  it  is 
not  necessary  to  waif  for  a  general  plant  to  be  put 
in  as  there  are  several  makes  of  incandescent  man- 
tle gasolene  lamps  in  the  market  which  give  excel- 
lent satisfaction.  The  burner  has  to  be  heated  be- 
fore the  gas  is  lighted  and  some  have  a  small  sepa- 


82 

rate  alcohol  lamp  for  trie  purpose  while  others  have 
an  attachment  on  the  burner.  The  lamps  are  made 
in  several  styles  for  street  use  and  many  prefer 
them  to  gas  or  electric  light. 

From  one  of  the  circulars  of  a  firm  making  gaso- 
lene incandescent  mantle  lamps  the  writer  has 
taken  a  table  showing  the  comparative  cost  of  light- 
ing a  room  20x60  feet  floor  area  and  with  ceiling  of 
ordinary  height.  It  is  given  below  and  has  not 
been  changed  in  any  way.  A  few  remarks  might  be 
made  in  this  connection  however  as  to  the  state- 
ment of  cost  so  the  reader  can  figure  the  matter  out 
himself.  A  16  candle  power  electric  lamp  is  consid- 
ered sufficient  in  most  cases  for  a  floor  area  of  100 
square  feet,  therefore  it  is  possible  the  cost  of  the 
electric  light  service  might  be  less  than  the  figures 
given.  Three-fourths  of  a  cent  per  hour  is  a  usual 
charge. 

A  16  candle  power  gas  jet  is  more  like  to  consume 
6  feet  per  hour  although  the  usual  flow  of  an  ordi- 
nary burner  is  5  feet.  One  dollar  per  1000  feet  of 
gas  is  cheap  gas.  The  information  as  to  cost  of 
carbide  for  acetylene  gas  gives  no  information  to 
the  non-technical  reader.  In  the  city  of  Wabash, 
Ind.,  the  cost  of  a  16  candle  power  acetylene  jet  is 
y$  cent  per  hour  with  discounts  off  of  from  10  per 
cent  to  30  per  cent  for.  consumption  of  from  600  to 
2000  hours.  The  cost  of  the  oil  lamp  with  central 
draught  the  writer  believes  to  be  a  trifle  low  and  he 
cannot  vouch  in  any  manner  for  the  figures  relating 
to  the  incandescent  gasolene  lamp  except  to  state 
that  he  knows  where  electric  lights  have  been  taken 


83 

out  and  these  lamps  used  instead  with  better  satis- 
faction and  a  remarkable  saving  in  expense.  The 
number  of  hours  had  best  be  investigated  also  in 
the  table  as  the  writer  has  not  looked  into  it  in  any 
way  except  as  to  the  cost  explained  above.  It  is 
always  best  to  examine  closely  all  tables  and  state- 
ments made  in  catalogues,  as  errors  sometimes 
creep  in. 

COMPARATIVE  COST 

FOR  UGHTING  A  ROOM  2Ox6o  ONE  HUNDRED 
HOURS  PER  MONTH  FOR  ONE  YEAR. 

Eighteen  incandescent  electric  lamps,  16  candle 
power,  288  candle  power,  21,600  hours  at  ^  cent 
per  hour,  cost $162  oo 

Eighteen  gas  jets,  16  candle  power  each,  288  candle 
power,  5  feet  per  hour,  per  jet  at  $i  per  1,000  feet, 
cost 108  oo 

Twelve  Acetylene  gas  jets,  20  caudle  power  each,  240 

candle  power,  carbide  at  $90  per  ton,  cost 100  oo 

Three  central  draft  oil  lamps,  75  candle  power  each, 
225  candle  power,  one  gallon  of  oil  per  burner,  10 
hours,  at  6  cents,  cost 21  60 

Three  incandescent  e^as  lights,  ico  candle  power 
each,  300  candle  power,  one  gallon  of  gasolene  per 
burner,  60  hours,  6  cents,  cost 360 

In  relation  to  the  placing  of  lights  a  report  made 
in  St.  Louis  last  year  by  the  board  of  public  im- 
provements was  against  the  use  of  electric  lights  in 
the  residence  districts  and  in  favor  of  incandescent 
mantle  gas  lamps  (not  gasolene  but  city  gas).  The 
cost  was  found  to  be  practically  the  same.  In  the 
business  district  a  large  volume  of  light,  which  will 
in  some  measure  illuminate. the  buildings  as  well  as 
the  streets  is  needed,  while  in  the  residence  districts 
an  even  distribution  of  light  by  small  units  is  found 
to  be  wanted.  Small  units  of  light  have  an  econo- 
mical advantage  for  lighting  long  blocks  with  few 
street  intersections.  Incandescent  electric  lamps  in 


84 

the  residence  districts  are  objectionable  on  account 
of  the  wiring  strung  along  overhead  and  across  in- 
tersecting streets,  and  electric  arc  lights  in  residence 
districts  are  an  annoyance  to  the  residents  of  the 
immediate  vicinity.  Trees  in  a  residence  district 
also  interfere  with  a  proper  distribution  of  light 
from  an  electric  lamp. 

In  many  European  cities  the  number  of  gas  jets 
in  out  of  the  way  courts,  narrow  squalid  streets  and 
other  places  where  in  the  United  States  it  is  thought 
a  waste  of  good  money  to  put  lights,  always  attracts 
the  attention  of  the  traveller.  Upon  inquiring  the 
reason  he  is  told  that  one  gas  jet  is  equal  to  a  po- 
liceman and  very  much  cheaper,  as  a  preventative 
of  crime.  In  some  cities  of  the  United  States  it  has 
been  found  that  a  bright  light  at  each  end  of  a  block 
does  more  toward  clearing  a  neighborhood  of  the  un- 
fortunate creatures  of  the  half  world  than  a  nightly 
raid  of  the  police. 


The   following    brief   suggestions 

FIRE  are  given  as   the    result    of   some 

DEPARTMENT     little  personal  experience    with    a 

volunteer    fire     department    in    a 

small  town  and  after  inquiry  into  the  experiences  of 

many  other  small  cities. 

The  first  requisite  is  a  good  alarm  system  and 
there  is  only  one  standard  for  large  places.  It  is 
too  costly,  however,  for  the  small  town  and  for  such 
places  the  writer  has  found  the  simple  magneto 
telephone  to  be  as  efficient  as  anything  and  very 


85 

cheap.  The  operation  of  such  a  system  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  city  is  divided  iiito  districts,  seldom  ex- 
ceeding six  on  account  of  the  number  of  rings  re- 
quired, and  each  district  has  a  number.  As  many 
telephones  as  the  city  can  afford  to  pay  for  are  put 
in  locked  boxes  on  poles  with  a  notice  painted  on 
the  box  telling  where  the  key  may  be  found.  In 
many  of  the  saloons,  stores,  hotels  and  other  public 
places  and  in  the  residences  of  the  members  of  the 
fire  department  may  be  placed  telephones  or  simply 
alarm  bells.  When  any  person  notices  a  fire  it  is 
only  necessary  to  go  to  the  nearest  telephone  box, 
open  it  and  proceed  to  ring  the  number  of  rings 
which  will  indicate  the  district  in  which  the  fire  is 
discovered.  The  alarm  should  be  rung,  say  three 
times,  and  then  the  aurophone  put  to  the  ear  so  in- 
quiries may  be  answered.  They  will  come  in  at 
once  from  every  telephone  on  the  line  and  one  an- 
swer is  made  to  all,  giving  the  exact  locality  of  the 
fire  by  the  house  owner's  name,  or  number  and 
street. 

The  companies  are  supposed  to  have  sufficient  or- 
ganization for  every  member  to  know  exactly  where 
to  report.  The  chief  should  at  once  repair  to  the 
fire  and  the  various  captains  and  other  designated 
officers  to  the  places  where  the  hose  carts  and  lad- 
der trucks  and  engines  are  housed.  Some  members 
who  have  apparatus  at  their  residences  or  places  of 
business  proceed  to  the  fire,  while  others  whose 
duty  it  is  will  stop  to  rouse  certain  individuals  who 
have  no  alarms.  It  takes  only  a  short  time  to 
arouse  the  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  extinguish  fires 


86 

and  the  peace  of  the  whole  community  is  seldom 
disturbed  unless  the  conflagration  is  a  large  one; 
and  then  a  general  alarm  can  be  turned  in  by  the 
ringing  of  church  and  .school  bell  with  the  usual  ac- 
companiment of  shouting  men  and  barking  dogs. 

In  places  where  the  marshal  or  street  commis- 
sioner is  ex-officio  fire  chief  and  there  is  no  organi- 
zation, or  only  a  quasi  one  wherein  every  political 
heeler  is  put  to  work  with  a  hose  and  puts  in  his 
bill  for  $2  at  the  next  council  meeting,  it  hardly 
pays  to  attempt  to  put  in  a  good  alarm  system,  or 
improve  upon  the  plan  in  existence  But  where  a 
good  volunteer  department  is  encouraged  the  re- 
sults are  very  good  as  insurance  rates  are  lessened 
and  the  city  soon  takes  a  pride  in  its  well  organized 
and  drilled  fire  department.  The  forming  of  several 
companies  tends  to  a  beneficial  rivalry. 

The  first  step  in  the  preparation  for  fire  fighting 
will  consist  in  the  council  requiring  every  house  to 
contain  at  least  two  buckets  for  fire  purposes  only, 
properly  painted  and  marked,  set  on  shelves  and 
kept  full  of  water,  together  with  an  ax  and  25  feet 
of  rope  with  a  heavy  hook  on  one  end  and  a  knot 
every  foot  apart.  There  should  be  also  on  every 
floor  at  a  convenient  point  not  less  than  three  hand 
grenades  or  a  small  chemical  fire  extinguisher. 

The  next  step  is  the  organization  of  volunteer 
companies  and  their  drilling.  The  first  lesson  in 
drilling  is  to  learn  how  to  pass  buckets  and  handle 
the  axes,  knotted  ropes  and  fire  grenades.  There 
should  be  one  drill  each  week  if  possible  and  two  or 
three  times  a  year  a  competitive  drill  in  all  the  glory 


87 

of  red  shirts  and  leather  hats.  Each  company 
should  have  two  or  three  Pompier  ladders  and  two 
or  three  chemical  fire  extinguishers  to  be  strapped 
on  the  back.  The  men  who  handle  the  ladders  and 
"spark  chasers"  as  the  chemical  extinguishers  are 
sometimes  called,  should  be  provided  with  heavy 
leather  belts,  having  on  them  snap  hooks.  With 
these  light  useful  ladders  and  the  extinguishers 
many  fires  can  be  prevented  from  becoming  danger- 
ous conflagrations  in  a  short  time.  The  drills  con- 
sist in  climbing  over  houses  and  running  up  store 
fronts  from  story  to  story  with  the  ladders  and  at 
some  windows  hanging  on  by  means  of  the  snap 
hook  and  directing  an  imaginary  stream  from  the 
extinguisher  or  a  hose  into  the  room.  There  should 
also  be  drills  with  bonfires  in  order  to  train  men  in 
the  use  of  buckets  and  chemical  extinguishers,  and 
the  use  of  the  hook  and  ladder  apparatus. 

If  the  town  has  a  water  works  system  with  a  good 
pressure  there  should  be  frequent  practice  with  the 
hose  and  hydrants.  Good  village  hose  carts 
equipped  with  axes,  crowbars  and  drag  ropes  can  be 
purchased  at  prices  ranging  from  $100  upwards. 
Fire  hose  can  be  obtained  at  prices  ranging  from  60 
cents  to  $i  per  foot.  If  the  place  has  no  waterworks 
system  with  good  pressure  some  form  of  village  fire 
engine  may  be  used  to  suck  water  from  the  pipes, 
or  if  there  is  no  waterworks  system  in  the  town  then 
the  engine  may  be  used  to  draw  water  from  private 
wells  or  cisterns,  and  public  cisterns  may  be  built 
at  the  intersections  of  main  streets,  calculated  to 
hold  water  enough  to  last  a  good  fire  an  hour  or  so 


88 

with,  three  or  four  hose  streams   playing  constantly. 

Village  engines  can  be  purchased  at  prices  rang- 
ing from  $185  to  $1000  or  $2000  with  room  on 
brakes  for  from  two  to  20  men.  This  form  of  en- 
gine has  not  by  any  means  gone  entirely  out  of  date 
and  is  doing  efficient  service  in  many  small  places. 
It  is  an  elegant  contrivance  for  keeping  up  interest 
in  volunteer  departments  and  when  frequent  tourn- 
aments can  be  arranged  with  neighboring  towns  the 
engine  becomes  an  objert  of  adoration  to  the  men  of 
the  company  possessing  it.  A  good  companion,  and 
not  always  a  competitor  of  the  village  engine,  is  the 
one  or  two  tank  chemical  engine  mounted  for  haul- 
ing with  drag  rope  and  costing  from  $300  up. 

The  equipment  of  alarm  system  and  fire  fighting 
apparatus  alone  will  not  make  an  efficient  depart- 
ment. It  requires  the  frequent  drill  and  thorough 
training  and  the  keen  rivalry  between  companies. 
In  short,  upon  the  personnel  of  the  fire  department 
depends  the  value  of  the  apparatus  of  the  town. 
The  companies  must  be  encouraged.  It  is  well  for  a 
general  meeting  place  to  be  provided  at  public  ex- 
pense for  the  members  where  a  caretaker  provided 
by  the  city  keeps  the  rooms  in  a  clean  condition. 
Here  there  should  be  kept  the  latest  periodicals  and 
an  outfit  such  as  every  good  athletic  club  possesses. 
There  should  be  no  dues  for  members  of  the  fire  de- 
partment and  there  should  be  an  abatement  of  poll 
tax  and  some  other  little  vexatious  things  the  ordi- 
nary citizen  is  subject  to.  No  money  should  be 
paid  anyone  by  the  city  for  service  at  fires  but 
worthy  and  needy  members  of  the  companies  can  be 


89 

engaged  as  watchmen  over  ruined  premises  when 
required  after  a  fire,  to  clean  the  apparatus  and  keep 
the  general  quarters  in  order.  Merchants  in  many 
small  towns  will  assist  the  council  in  keeping  good 
volunteer  companies  and  the  interest  manifested  by 
the  young  men  in  such  things  will  soon  become  felt 
in  other  civic  affairs.  Many  places  too  small  for  a 
military  company  have  volunteer  fire  companies 
which  supply  the  need  the  military  company  sup- 
plies for  exercise  and  companionship  among  men  of 
congenial  dispositions.  Sometimes  such  organiza- 
tions go  into  politics  "but  that  is  another  story"  as 
no  body  of  men  is  entirely  free  from  the  desire  to 
control  local  politics  when  strong  enough. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Many  of  our  towns  have    been    settled 

PLANS        so  long  and   there   has   been   so  little 

AND          care   exercised   in    preserving    monu- 

SURVEYS      ments    that   the   original   stakes  have 

disappeared  and  a  "happy  go  lucky" 
way  of  establishing  lines  for  fences  and  buildings 
has  crept  in  which  leads  to  trouble  between  neigh- 
bors. Sometimes  the  trouble  flares  out  and  the 
whole  town  is  stirred  from  center  to  circumference 
over  the  matter  and  the  merits  and  demerits  of  va- 
rious surveyors  discussed  with  acrimony.  It  is  apt 
to  get  to  such  a  pass  that  it  is  impossible  to  relocate 
the  original  lines  with  certainty.  The  longer  such 
a  state  of  affairs  continues  the  worse  the  confusion 
and  the  prospect  of  costly  law  suits  are  promising  at 
some  future  time  when  land  has  increased  consider- 
ably in  value. 

The  causes  for  such  a  state  of  affairs  are  many. 
Sometimes  the  original  survey  was  faulty.  This  is 
often  the  case,  for  the  original  survey  was  made 
when  land  was  cheap,  with  imperfect  instruments 
and  by  careless  methods;  sometimes  by  men  illy 
trained.  When  the  original  stakes  disappeared  sur- 
veyors coming  after  who  were  called  upon  to  survey 
a  lot  had  to  start  from  some  fence  corner  or  build- 
ing claimed  to  be  correct  by  some  and  the  correct- 
ness of  which  was  denied  by  others.  If  these  sur- 
veyors had  been  commissioned  to  survey  the  whole 


town  and  their  records  kept  carefully  the  troubles 
would  not  be  so  great.  But  the  surveys  were 
isolated  ones  made  at  a  cost  satisfactory  to  the  lot 
owner  and  the  price  seldom  large  enough  to  enable 
a  man  to  do  all  the  work  that  was  really  necessary 
to  do  a  correct  job.  When  the  owners  between  the 
later  re-surveys  finally  get  pinched  there  is  trouble. 

When  the  need  of  some  proper  definition  of 
boundaries  is  realized  and  a  complete  re-survey  de- 
cided upon,  it  should  be  made  by  a  competent  en- 
gineer who  has  had  previous  experience  in  ihat  class 
of  work  and  who  has  some  legal  knowledge.  For 
his  work  must  be  done  so  if  courts  and  juries  follow 
over  the  lines  they  will  say  it  has  been  as  well  done 
as  it  possibly  could  be.  It  is  a  risky  thing  to  dis- 
turb long  established  possessions  and  only  the  most 
conscientious  and  careful  work  will  do. 

An  axiom  in  settling  disputes  over  lines  is  that 
monuments  govern  distances  and  distances  govern 
bearings.  Such  decisions  were  given  in  former 
days  when  compass  lines  were  so  often  run  and 
there  was  known  to  be  errors  in  that  class  of  work. 
The  setting  of  a  monument  was  something  any  man 
could  do  and  it  was  supposed  almost  any  one  could 
measure  a  line  as  he  wished,  but  the  turning  of 
angles  was  a  matter  requiring  skill  and  in  matters  of 
skill  men  often  make  mistakes.  It  is  now  conceded 
however  that  with  the  modern  methods  of  laying 
out  work  the  measuring  of  a  line  is  a  more  skillful 
matter  than  the  turning  and  reading  of  an  angle  and 
later  decisions  give  the  proper  weight  to  both  opera- 
tions. Although  there  has  been  a  change  in  that 


92 

respect  there  has  been  none  respecting  monuments 
and  they  must  govern  above  everything — unless 
positive  proof  can  be  given  that  they  have  been 
altered  or  changed  in  location.  Of  several  calls  in 
a  description  the  certain  govern  the  uncertain,  -even 
to  the  rejection  of  the  uncertain.  When  a  town  has 
been  laid  off  without  any  permanent  monuments 
and  the  original  stakes  have  rotted  and  disappeared 
the  surveyor  who  comes  in  and  tries  to  lay  off  that 
town  mathmatically  without  paying  proper  attention 
to  long  established  possession  is  foolish.  Each 
block  has  to  be  treated  by  itself  and  the  surveyor 
must  recognize  what  he  terms  inaccuracies.  The 
city  of  course  is  entitled  to  the  full  street  width  but 
it  is  doubtful  if  any  buildings  can  be  removed  from 
the  street  if  they  are  not  an  obstruction.  They  can 
be  permitted  to  remain  until  they  become  a  nuisance 
or  until  rebuilt,  when  the  city  can  assert  its  claim  . 
to  the  portion  of  street  they  occupied. 

A  resurvey  made  under  such  circumstances  often 
gives  crooked  streets  of  varying  width  where  the 
original  plat  showed  a  straight  street  of  even  width 
but  if  none  of  the  points  can  be  positively  identified 
then  it  is  impossible  to  lay  the  place  off  as  it  was 
claimed  to  be  first  laid  off.  The  only  way  to  prevent 
a  recurrence  of  expense  and  trouble  is  to  finally  and 
definitely  fix  the  lines  by  permanent  monuments, 
well  identified,  and  record  the  maps.  If  the  town 
has  been  mouumented  and  the  buildings  have  been 
put  up  without  surveys  there  is  no  doubt  that  they 
must  come  to  the  right  lines  as  the  monuments  gov- 
ern, and  if  in  existence  at  the  time  the  buildings 


93 

were  erected  there  could  be  no  excuse  for  not  build- 
ing exactly  on  the  proper  lines.  Because  the  origi- 
nal owner  was  too  stingy  to  employ  a  surveyor  he 
should  not  be  allowed  to  unsettle  the  lines  of  a 
whole  neighborhood. 

Every  town  should  have  a  city  base,  or  plane  of 
reference,  from  which  tc  calculate  all  elevations. 
This  is  for  the  purpose  of  permanently  establishing 
official  elevations  and  grades  of  streets  and  sewers. 
The  elevation  above  sea  level,  or  the  mean  of  lower 
low  tides,  is  a  good  plane  of  reference  if  government 
bench  marks  are  near;  or  low  water  mark  in  the 
stream  into  which  the  sewerage  is  discharged  may 
be  taken.  The  plane  of  reference  may  be  termed 
zero  and  elevations  referred  to  as  so  many  feet  above 
or  below  it.  Frequent  bench  marks  should  be  es- 
tablished throughout  the  city,  referring  to  the  city 
base  so  that  long  lines  of  levels  can  be  avoided  in 
doing  work.  Careful  records  should  be  kept  of  such 
things. 

All  subdivisions  of  land  within  the  town  limits 
should  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  council 
before  the  plats  are  filed.  The  council  should  pre- 
scribe the  maximum  and  minimum  grades,  the  di- 
rection of  the  lines  and  the  width  of.  the  streets. 
When  the  owner  submits  his  plats  for  the  approval 
of  the  council  they  should  show  proper  connections 
with  adjacent  city  monuments  and  show  monuments 
at  all  street  intersections  and  changes  of  direction. 
The  elevation  of  all  corners  above  city  base  should 
be  also  shown  in  red  ink. 


94 

It  is  unwise  to  attempt  to  do  any 

SPECIFICATIONS     woric  without  plans  and  specifi- 

AND  cations    being   prepared    in  ad- 

CONTRACTS         vance    with    estimates    of  cost. 

Complete  specifications  are  plain 

descriptions  with  the  necessary  drawings,  in  detail 
of  the  work  to  be  done,  and  should  form  a  part  of 
the  contract.  As  a  rule  it  is  better  to  do  all  public 
work  by  contract  than  day  labor.  It  will  be  found 
most  satisfactory  in  the  end,  although  a  very  few 
places  have  found  it  otherwise. 

It  is  not  economical  for  the  municipality  to  fur-' 
nish  paving  and  other  material  and  contract  simply 
for  labor,  as  the  inspectors  are  apt  to  be  lenient  in 
passing  imperfect  material  in  order  to  save  loss. 
The  only  way  is  to  have  the  contractor  furnish 
everything  under  rigid  inspection  before  being  put 
in  place. 

The  council  should  not  attempt  to  dictate  to  the 
contractor  whom  to  employ  and  whom  not  to  em- 
ploy. It  is  well  to  give  home  labor  the  preference 
but  if  the  contractor  is  compelled  to  employ  only 
local  labor  the  cost  of  the  work  is  increased.  The 
men  thus  encouraged  become  very  independent  and 
the  contractor  finds  good  men  scarce  and  hard  to 
deal  with  when  protected  thus.  It  is  not  just  nor 
honest  to  the  taxpayers  to  put  such  restrictions  in 
any  contract. 

For  economical  work  there  must  be  good,  clear 
specifications,  honest  advertising  and  letting  of  con- 
tracts, with  competent  supervision  and  severe  pen- 
alties for  non-performance  and  shirking  of  work. 


95 

When  plans  for  public   water    supply  or 

PLANS      lighting  or  sewerage   are   wanted   there 
are  two  methods  only  which   can  be  con- 
sidered, one  of  which  must  be  adopted. 

The  first  method,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  best, 
is  to  select  a  competent  engineer  and  have  him  pre- 
pare the  plans.  Pay  him  a  fair  price  for  his  work 
and  give  him  every  facility  in  its  prosecution.  This 
is  a  proceeding  in  accordance  with  the  old  saying: 
"Every  man  to  his  trade." 

The  plans  when  completed  must  of  course  be  ac- 
cepted or  rejected  by  the  council.  A  consulting  en- 
gineer can  be  selected  to  report  upon  them  or  the 
council  can  act  without  a  consulting  engineer,  other 
than  the  one  who  has  been  employed  to  prepare  the 
plans.  But  if  no  other  engineer  is  employed  then 
the  council  should  not  attempt  to  criticise  any  of 
the  technical  or  scientific  features  of  the  plans  as 
that  is  a  criticism  of  a  man's  ability  by  men  of  no 
ability  in  that  particular  line  of  work.  Questions 
of  expediency  alone  must  govern  in  the  rejection  or 
acceptance  of  plans. 

The  great  objection  to  the  above  method  is  that 
many  men  assume  the  title  of  "expert"  who  have 
no  right  to  do  so.  Some  incompetent  man  is  some- 
times selected  out  of  gratitude  for  past  favors  re- 
ceived, or  prospective  favors  to  be  granted,  or  out  of 
friendship  to  some  one  in  authority.  To  avoid  such 
a  selection  the  expedient  is  sometimes  tried  of  ad- 
vertising in  an  engineering  paper  of  wide  circula- 
tion for  an  engineer.  The  advertisement  should 
state  the  size  of  the  town,  both  as  regards  area  and 


96 

population,  the  work  required,  and  ask  for  engineers 
to  send  in  sealed  envelopes  a  statement  of  their  ex- 
perience in  such  work,  a  photograph  of  themselves, 
a  list  of  good  references  and  a  statement  of  how 
much  they  will  charge  to  do  the  work.  This  method 
generally  results  in  a  satisfactory  way  if  there  is  no 
good  engineer  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  to  un- 
dertake the  work.  The  man  who  offers  to  do  the 
work  for  the  lowest  price  is  not  always  the  best  man 
to  employ  and  it  is  generally  the  case  that  some 
local  engineer  can  tell  readily  among  the  men  who 
present  themselves  for  the  work,  those  most  promi- 
nent in  the  profession  for  the  class  of  work  adver- 
tised. It  is  well  to  state  in  the  advertisement  that 
applications  will  not  be  considered  from  those  who 
come  in  person  or  write  personal  letters  to  the  coun- 
cilman in  advance  of  the  date  set  for  opening  the 
sealed  letters. 

The  second  method  spoken  of  is  to  have  competi- 
tive plans  prepared.  In  the  former  edition  of  this 
work  the  writer  went  sonuwhat  into  detail  on  the 
manner  of  preparing  for  a  competition  of  plans. 
It  is  a  practice,  however,  to  be  discouraged  and  one 
which  no  town  should  attempt.  The  business  gen- 
erally results  unsatisfactorily  to  all  concerned  and 
the  best  plan  is  not  often  selected. 

In  examining  plans  which  have  been  prepared  on 
an  order  of  the  council  there,  is  oftentimes  mani- 
fested a  disinclination  to  employ  engineers.  This 
is  notable  in  the  western  states.  To  examine  sew- 
erage plans  a  committee  of  plumbers,  architects  and 
physicians  will  be  appointed,  with  perhaps  a  con- 


97 

tractor  or  two,  while  to  examine  plans  for  water 
supply,  stationary  engineers,  machinists  and  con- 
tractors are  favored.  The  much  vaunted  "sense"  of 
the  business  man  is  relied  upon,  yet  this  same  busi- 
ness man  calls  in  physicians  when  ill,  lawyers  when 
sued  and  a  carpenter  and  mason  when  he  wants  to 
build  a  house.  To  employ  the  physician  and  law- 
yer to  build  his  house  or  consult  the  carpenter  when 
ill  and  have  the  mason  prepare  a  plaster  for  a  sore 
chest,  would  be  extremely  bad  form  and  not  econo- 
mical. The  inferences  are  obvious. 


In  an  editorial   in   the   Engineering 
THE  News  of  July  n,  1895  the  following 

'  VALUE         extract  appeared:      "The  fact  that  a 
OF  competent   engineer   can  make  a  lit- 

TECHNICAL     tie  money  go   much  farther  than  it 
ADVICE         would  go   without  his  advice  and  aid 
is  one   which    the   general  public   is 
slow  to  comprehend.      The   average    man   congratu- 
lates himself  upon  the  dollars  he  saves   by    dispens- 
ing with  an  engineer's  services,  and   knows  nothing 
of  the  dollars  lost  in  exhorbitant  prices,   or   in  work 
poorly  executed." 

The  average  man  has  to  build  at  least  one  house 
in  his  lifetime.  If  he  is  sensible  enough  to  have  an 
architect  to  stand  between  him  and  the  concractor 
he  is  generally  fortunate  in  his  work.  When  he  at- 
tempts to  do  without  an  architect  and  accepts  the 
plan  of  some  builder  to  whom  he  awards  the  con- 
tract he  is  in  a  pitiful  plight.  When  he  buys  a 


98 

book  of  ready  made  plans  and  attempts  to  do  the 
work  without  any  architect  at  all  he  delivers  him- 
self bodily  into  the  hands  of  the  contractor  who 
erects  the  house,  and  generally  pays  a  high  price 

» 

for  a  poor  job.  Speaking  of  men  in  such  connection 
a  recent  article  in  the  American  Contractor  says:  "I 
have  constructed  more  than  a  hundred  buildings," 
remarked  a  prominent  builder,  "more  than  half  of 
them  on  my  own  account,  and  think  I  understand 
the  art  of  building,  but  I  would  as  soon  think  of  my- 
self making  the  hardware  by  hand  as  proceeding 
without  an  architect,  even  when  I  am  following 
plans  which  I  have  already  used,  as  is  sometimes 
the  case.  In  an  architect  I  have  a  responsible 
agent  who  avoids  mistakes  and  is  accountable  when 
they  occur.  Occupying  the  position  he  does  he' can 
secure  the  lowest  bids,  and  acting  in  a  fiduciary  way, 
must  ignore  the  claims  of  personal  friends,  which  a 
builder  is  often  unable  to  do.  I  have  tried  the  other 
plan  enough  to  demonstrate  its  absolute  fallacy.  A 
competent  and  reliable  architect  will  save  the 
builder  several  times  the  amount  of  the  charges  he 
makes." 

When  a  city  attempts  to  have  work  done  by  men 
who  have  no  previous  training  in  the  work  the  re- 
sult is  a  failure.  Yet  it  is  often  attempted.  Many 
times  a  surveyor  oi  little  ability  as  a  surveyor  and 
no  knowledge  of  engineering  is  appointed  as  a  city 
engineer  and  allowed  to  work  his  own  sweet  will  in 
matters  calling  for  the  highest  possible  engineering 
skill  and  advice,  when  it  should  be  known  that  a 
surveyor  bears  the  same  relation  to  an  engineer  that 


99 

a  pharmacist  does  to  a  physician.  It  is  well  to  have 
a  local  man  to  do  the  ordinary  work  of  setting  out 
lines  and  making  surveys  but  if  he  is  not  trained  fof 
the  higher  engineering  work  it  is  better  to  call  in  a 
man,  who  has  made  such  matters  a  special  study,  to 
consult  with  him  and  the  council. 

Sometimes  in  the  evaluation  of  a  plant  the  city 
proposes  purchasing,  men  are  selected  to  examine 
the.  plant  because  they  are  "practical"  and  an  engi- 
neer, forsooth  is  "theoretical".  In  common  lan- 
guage theory  means  hypothesis,  but  in  scientific 
circles  theory  is  one  thing  and  hypothesis  is 
another.  A  theoretical  man  among  scientific  men  is 
one  who  has  had  a  good  scientific  training  and  a 
theory  is  simply  a  statement  in  technical  language 
of  the  result  of  a  long  continued  series  of  accurate 
observations.  It  is  the  statement  of  an  observed 
law  in  a  manner  which  will  enable  a  man  to  predict 
confidently  how  a  certain  event  may  terminate. 
But  in  common  language  the  word  "theory"  is  so 
often  used  when  "hypothesis"  or  "hypothetical" 
may  be  really  meant,  that  a  man  claiming  to  be 
well  posted  theoretically  is  at  once  set  down  as  a 
fool.  All  that  is  necessary  for  a  man  to  take  high 
rank  as  a  practical  man  in  some  communities  is  to 
parade  himself  as  a  man  who  has  used  his  eyes  and 
ears  to  observe  things  and  has  never  wasted  time 
reading  books  on  the  subjects  he  discusses,  for  he 
somehow  thinks  that  neither  the  writer  nor  the 
reader  of  scientific  books  as  good  sense.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  patient  and  useful  work  of  a 
really  conscientious  engineer  in  a  community  is  en- 


100 

tirely  undone  by  a  pretentious  and  ignorant  man 
who  boasts  of  his  "theoretical"  ignorance  and  prates 
about  his  "practical"  (?)  knowledgein  thecolumnsof 
the  local  paper.  He  somehow  cannot  get  through 
his  head  an  idea  that  the  engineer  who  adds  to  his 
book  knowledge  an  experience  of  many  years  in  the 
practice  of  his  profession  may  be  a  practical  man. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  after  an  engineer 
leaves  school  he  seldom  has  occasion  to  consult  a 
work  on  mathematics  or  abstract  science  unless  he 
has  a  bent  in  that  direction.  His  reading  along  en- 
gineering lines  is  in  weekly  or  monthly  periodicals 
filled  with  descriptions  of  work  executed  by  other 
engineers  and  in  the  reading  of  books  of  the  same 
nature,  but  each  of  which  treats  of  a  special  subject. 
He  must  really  be  a  practical  man  if  he  adds  to  his 
own  experience  a  knowledge  of  the  experience  of 
others.  His  theoretical  training  enables  him  to  sift 
the  false  from  the  true  unerringly.  The  untrained 
man  is  generally  more  theoretical  (i.  e.  jumps  at  con- 
clusions with  little  reason)  than  the  trained  man. 


Technical    advice    of    value      costs 

THE  nothing.     That  is,    there    is    a    real 

COST  saving  by  having   such    advice    and 

OF  wrong  to  add  it   to    the  expense    ac- 

TECHN1CAL     count  of  a  piece  of  work.      It   must 

ADVICE         be  borne  in   mind   that   while    there 

may  be  pools  in  bidding  on  work,  at 

the  same  time  there  may    be    variations    enough  in 

the  plans   of  the    bidders    to    account    for    the    dif- 


ferences  in  price,  and  if  the  council  has  not  as- 
certained the  conditions  so  well  before  calling  for 
bids  that  everything  is  provided  for  and  nothing  left 
to  luck,  the  element  of  uncertainty  must  be  covered 
by  a  large  price  which  may  or  may  not  be  all  profit. 
When  the  contractor  prepares  his  own  plans  he  is 
entirely  responsible  and  the  city  pays  him  a  big 
price  for  insurance.  With  the  engineer  in  the  re- 
sponsible position  the  contractor  has  only  to  do  ex- 
actly as  the  engineer  directs  and  he  is  sure  of  his 
money.  All  reputable  contractors  prefer  to  have 
good  men  in  charge  of  work,  notwithstanding  the 
general  opinion  to  the  contrary. 

Cities  and  individuals  have  often  to  call  in  con- 
sulting engineers  to  look  over  work  being  done  by 
an  engineer  in  their  employ  or  to  give  opinions  on 
plans  prepared  by  some  engineer  whom  they  have 
employed  or  will  employ  to  carry  out  the  work.  The 
consulting  engineer  is  then  put  in  the  position  of  a 
critic  and  his  expressed  opinion  may  have  the  effect 
of  throwing  a  man  out  of  work  and  perhaps  ruin 
his  reputation.  This  is  a  serious  position  for  a  man 
to  occupy  and  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  no 
reputable  engineer  will  thus  pass  judgment  upon 
the  work  of  another  unless  that  engineer  is  first  told 
of  his  employment  and  expresses  himself  as  agree- 
able to  having  the  consulting  engineer  called  in.  If 
he  leaves  his  work  before  the  consulting  engineer 
is  employed  that  is  an  entirely  different  matter. 
But  even  in  that  case  no  reputable  engineer  will 
render  a  report  upon  another  man's  work  until  he 
has  given  that  man  an  opportunity  for  a  hearing,  as 


102 


the  first  man  has  had  perhaps  months  to  study  the 
matter  and  the  consulting  engineer  has  of  course  to 
pass  judgment  after  less  time  given  to  study  of  the 
problems  involved.  If  parties  employing  engineers 
find  a  man  willing  to  violate  such  a  plain  rule  of 
common  courtesy  they  should  avoid  him. 

What  to  pay  an  engineer  is  a  question  difficult  for 
most  men  to  determine.  If  they  advertise  for  an 
engineer  the  prices  vary  greatly  and  if  they  start  to 
hunt  for  an  engineer  they  will  find  the  same  differ- 
ences to  exist.  Among  men  of  standing,  however, 
there  is  something  near  uniformity  in  the  charges 
made  for  professional  services,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  engineers  who  wish  to  stand  well  in  their  profes- 
sion and  who  take  a  pride  in  their  work.  There 
has  to  be  a  distinction  made  in  the  character  of 
work  done.  For  consultation  on  matters  requiring 
special  training,  skill  and  study,  and  for  advice  in 
settling  disputes  a  charge  of  $25  per  day  together 
with  all  expenses  is  a  minimum.  When  plans  have 
been  prepared  and  work  is  being  done,  if  the  engi- 
neer is  retained  in  a  supervisory  capacity,  his  charge 
then  is  generally  $15  per  day  and  all  expenses  for 
each  day  he  is  actually  on  the  ground.  For  exam- 
ple, a  town  ma}7  call  in  a  man  first  to  consult  with 
them  in  the  matter  of  a  sewer  system  and  he  charges 
$25  per  day  for  the  time  he  has  spent  on  that  trip. 
The  local  engineer  prepares  the  plans  and  they  are 
submitted  to  the  consulting  engineer,  "expert"  some 
term  him,  and  he  goes  thoroughly  over  them  sug- 
gesting changes  and  making  a  final  report,  and  his 
charge  per  diem  is  the  same.  The  work  is  pro- 


103 

ceeded  with  and  the  local  engineer  put  in  charge, 
but  with  the  privilege  of  calling  in  the  consulting 
engineer  as  often  as  he  feels  his  presence  necessary. 
For  this  latter  work  the  charge  is  $15  per  day. 

In  the  case  of  ordinary  surveys  a  sliding  schedule 
is  generally  arranged.  This  is  for  work  which  the 
engineer  may  do  personally  or  may  trust  to  an  as- 
sistant, but  being  himself  responsible  for  its  right 
performance.  The  charge  then  is  usually  $10  per 
day  for  six  days  work,  $8  per  day  for  the  next  six 
days  work  and  $6  per  day  for  every  day  after.  For 
office  work  in  connection'  the  charge  is  usually  $8 
per  day  for  six  days,  $7  per  day  for  the  second,  six 
days  and  $6  per  day  for  every  day  after  that.  This 
of  course  in  addition  to  traveling  expenses  and  all 
expenses  incurred  during  absence  from  home. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  of  paying  for  engineer- 
ing services  other  than  consultation,  is  by  a  per- 
centage upon  the  contract  cost  somewhat  as  follows: 
For  preliminary  plans  and  estimates  without  sur- 
veys, one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  cost.  With 
surveys  it  may  go  from  i  to  5  per  cent.  For  com- 
plete plans  and  specifications  in  addition  to  above, 
i  per  cent.  For  supervision  (which  does  not  in- 
clude the  setting  of  grade  and  line  stakes)  i  per 
cent  in  addition  to  above.  With  the  setting  of 
stakes  (the  engineer  paying  his  own  helpers)  2  per 
cent.  Or  all  of  the  above  (except  the  first  surveys) 
three  and  one-half  per  cent  where  the  employer  pays 
for  the  inspector  on  the  work  and  the  engineer  is 
expected  to  go  on  the  work  as  often  as  is  necessary  to 
thoroughly  supervise  the  carrying  out  of  the  specifi- 


104 

cations.  If  the  engineer  is  expected  to  pay  for  the 
inspector  the  charge  will  be  5  per  cent  for  ever}-- 
thing  except  the  original  surveys.  Sometimes  the 
original  surveys  are  of  so  little  moment  that  noth- 
ing extra  is  charged  for*  them.  The  ground  must 
be  studied,  however,  before  any  estimate  can  be 
given  on  that  point. 

Under  the  percentage  system  the  pay  is  due  as 
each  step  of  the  work  is  completed;  and  the  percent- 
ages before  the  contract  is  let,  or  if  the  proposed 
work  is  abandoned  before  a  contract  is  let,  are  due 
and  payable  upon  the  estimated  cost. 

In  reports  taken  from  many  cities  of  the  United 
States  the  engineering,  including  surveys  and  office 
work,  varies  from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the 
work  and  in  railroads  the  engineering  is  generally 
estimated  at  about  5  to  7  per  cent.  In  many  cases, 
however,  there  is  made  a  difference  between  the  en- 
gineering and  superintendence,  the  engineering 
consisting  simply  in  the  preparation  of  the  plans 
and  the  setting  out  of  the  work,  the  carrying  out  be- 
ing charged  to  superintendence.  Yet  in  other  places 
the  whole  is  charged  to  the  engineering  account. 

A  remark  was  heard  by   the    writer  one 

HOW       day  in  a  city  of    some    size   where    some 

TO  DO     street  work  was  in  progress.     An  official 

THE        of  a  small  town   near    by    was    watching 

WORK      the  work  and  talking  with  the  contractor. 

It  developed  that  as  he  had  some  business 

requiring  his  presence  in  the  city  his  brother    coun- 

c  Imen  had  asked    him    to    gain    some    information 


I05 

i 

about  such  work  and  report  to  them.  He  said  in 
part:  "We  are  very  anxious  to  get  work  like 
this  done  in  our  town  but  there  is  no  contractor 
there  who  can  do  it.  If  you  would  come  up  there 
and  do  us  this  kind  of  a  job  we  will  be  glad  to  talk 
with  you." 

He,  like  many  others,  believed  the  whole  job  to 
be  the  work  of  the  contractor.  The  people  of  that 
place  wanted  work  done  and  never  considered  that 
it  was  necessary  to  have  carefully  prepared  plans 
and  specifications  and  responsible  oversight.  One 
and  all  the  various  builders  and  teamsters  in  that 
town  had  declined  to  undertake  a  job  of  macadamiz- 
ing because  they  were  not  familiar  with  such  work. 
They  were  ready  to  build  cross-walks  and  haul 
gravel  but  to  carry  a  careful  piece  of  work  through 
in  its  entirety  they  were  shy.  The  work  was  not 
done  because  the  council  did  not  know  exactly  what 
was  needed  and  the  contractors  were  as  badly  off. 
Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  contractor  whom  he 
talked  with,  this  particular  councilman  went  home 
and  made  a  report  to  the  others. 

The  town  surveyor  was  asked  as  to  his  experience 
in  such  work  and  frankly  confessed  that  while  "it  is 
easy  to  read  books  and  get  posted  on  such  things" 
he  had  not  had  any  experience  in  such  work  but 
mentioned  a  man  who  had.  The  man  was  sent  for. 
A  careful  set  of  specifications  was  prepared  with 
full  drawings  in  detail,  and  the  town  surveyor  was 
given  some  instruction  in  matters  of  which  he  said 
he  was  ignorant.  Bids  were  advertised  for  and  to 
the  surprise  of  the  council  there  were  quite  a  num- 


io6 

her  of  their  local  men  represented.  One  of  them 
got  the  job  and  the  engineer  who  prepared  the  plans 
was  called  in  several  times  during  its  progress  to 
advise  with  the  contractor  and  the  town  surveyor. 
After  the  completion  of  that  piece  of  work  the  latter 
found  himself  able  to  prepare  plans  and  specifica- 
tions for  other  work  of  a  similar  nature,  and  the 
council  had  learned  a  great  deal.  Not  the  least  of 
which  was  that  any  kind  of  work  that  a  man  wants 
done  can  be  done  provided  the  contractor  has  laid 
out  fully  for  him  every  detail  and  has  someone 
over  him  who  is  responsible  and  competent.  The 
contractor  does  not  need  necessarily  to  be  ex- 
perienced in  such  work  to  do  it  right — although  he 
is  more  apt  to  make  money  as  his  experience  in- 
creases. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

The  items  of  cost  in  any    enterprise 

MUNICIPAL      may  be  generally  stated  as   follows: 

OWNERSHIP  i — Interest  on  the  investment, 
which  includes  interest  on  the 
bonded  indebtedness  and  also  on  all  capital  ex- 
pended for  construction  over  and  above  the  bonded 
indebtedness. 

2 — The  animal  payment  into  the  bonded  indebted- 
ness sinking  fund. 

3 — Payment  into  a  fund  for  periodical  renewals, 
or  the  annual  reduction  in  value  by  reason  of  de- 
preciation of  the  plant  through  time. 

4 — Operating  expenses  and  administration. 

5 — Extensions  and  improvements  of  the  system, 
and  a  payment  into  a  fund  for  anticipated  future  ex- 
tensions or  additions. 

6 — The  profit  on  the  investment. 

The  first  and  last  items  are  sometimes  so  closely 
connected  that  they  are  synonomous,  but  the  in- 
vestment is  not  gilt.edged  then  unless  the  stock  is 
watered.  As  men  organize  quasi-public  corpora- 
tions for  the  profit  there  may  be  in  them,  the  idea 
of  municipal  ownership  of  all  public  utilities  is  al- 
luring for  it  is  imagined  the  people  will  save  to 
themselves  the  profits  usually  made. 

Under  the  head  of  operating  expenses  it  is  some- 
times customary  to  place  the  item  of  taxation  and 


loS 

sometimes  it  is  customary  to  remove  taxation  and 
insurance  from  the  item  of  operating  expenses  and 
place  them  by  themselves  as  a  separate  item  of  ex- 
pense. It  is  urged  that  under  public  control  the 
only  items  of  cost  are  as  follows: 

i — Administration. 

2 — Labor,  supplies,  etc. 

3 — Renewals  and  extensions. 

4 — Maintenance 

Profits,  taxes  and  interest  are  saved,  therefore  the 
consumer  gets  his  goods  at  bare  cost  or  perhaps  a 
small  profit  may  be  made  to  help  defray  the  cost 
of  other  non-productive  properties. 

Advocates  of  wholesale  municipal  ownership  are 
no  doubt  honest  in  their  intentions  and  beliefs,  but 
deficient  in  perception  of  economic  facts.  Anything 
tending  to  an  increase  in  salaried  positions,  especi- 
ally positions  not  requiring  any  wonderful  amount 
of  ability  but  where  faithfulness  and  honesty  should 
govern,  tends  to  increased  expenditures  and  in- 
creased danger  of  political  control  or  "bossism". 
With  an  enlargement  in  scope  of  the  civil  service 
idea  and  the  elimination  of  national  party  politics 
from  municipal  affairs,  it  is  possible  our  municipali- 
ties may  safely  and  economically  engage  in  various 
lines  of  business,  but  not  otherwise. 

In  America  Professor  Bryce  says  we  have  made  a 
conspicuous  failure  in  our,  so-called,  system  of  mu- 
nicipal government.  The  excuse  that  our  cities 
have  grown  too  fast  is  not  a  valid  one.  The  reader 
is  referred  to  Albert  Shaw's  "Municipal  Govern- 
ment in  Great  Britian"  anduMunicipal  Government 


109 

in  Continental  Burope"  for  information  as  to  the  rela- 
tive growth  of  American  and  European  cities  in  the 
last  thirty-five  or  forty  years.  The  American 
familiar  with  the  "boom"  growth  of  his  own  cities 
will  gasp  with  astonishment  when  he  compares  some 
of  the  most  prominent  American  cities  with  the 
places  in  Europe  he  has  been  accustomed  to  think 
slow. 

The  excuse  that  our  failures  are  on  account  of 
universal  suffrage,  while  in  England  where  muni- 
cipal government  has  nearly  attained  perfection  the 
suffrage  is  restricted,  is  not  a  valid  excuse.  Birming- 
ham in  1891  had  a  population  of  430,000  and  Boston  a 
population  of  448,000,  a  difference  in  the  favor  of  Bos- 
ton of  18,000.  Birmingham  had  88,186  registered  votes 
while  Boston  had  73,000  a  difference  in  favor  of 
Birmingham  of  15,186  so  that  Birmingham  with 
18,000  less  population  and  with  strictly  enforced 
laws  respecting  the  right  of  suffrage  had  15,186 
more  registered  voters  than  Boston,  where  every 
man  could  vote  if  he  felt  like  it.  Where  the  vote  is 
a  privilege  it  is  valued.  Where  it  is  an  inherent 
right  there  is  a  class  of  indifferent  men  who  hold  the 
balance  of  power — and  unfortunately,  when  these 
men  are  aroused  it  is  seen  they  express  at  the  polls 
the  best  public  sentiment.  They  should  be  kept  in 
an  interested  state  of  mind. 

Joseph  Chamberlain  in  a  Manchester  speech  a  few 
years  ago  said  the  reason  for  failure  in  municipal 
government  in  the  United  States  was  that  the  high- 
est officials  were  underpaid  and  their  terms  of  office 
were  short  with  no  guarantee  of  perm; 


no 

office  no  matter  how  good  their  record,  while  their 
subordinates  received  higher  pay  than  they  could 
get  in  outside  employment  and  had  to  use  every  pos- 
sible political  device  to  hold  their  positions.  He 
said,  in  short,  that  our  American  cities  are  controlled 
by  the  clerks  of  departments  and  the  workmen  on 
the  streets  instead  of  by  the  better  and  more  intelli- 
gent class  of  office  holders,  who  were  ofttinies  in- 
competent because  they  held  their  office  by  election 
and  accepted  for  bhort  terms  smaller  salaries  than 
an  able  man  in  their  profession  could  make  in  pri- 
vate practice. 

Such  a  state  of  affairs  must  be  changed.  In  Eng- 
land there  are  men  in  office  who  have  held  office  con- 
tinually for  40  and  50  years  and  there  are  men  on 
the  councils  who  have  been  there  nearly  all  their 
lives.  Attorneys,  clerks  engineers  and  such  men 
are  appointed  in  those  countries  for  life,  or  good  be- 
havior ana!,  the  pay  they  get  is  very  large  to  an 
American.  Their  assistants  and  subordinates  are 
appointed  after  rigid  practical  examinations  and 
their  pay  is  regulated  by  the  salaries  paid  in  busi- 
ness houses  for  similar  service.  The  "boss"  is  un- 
known. National  politics  play  no  part  in  municipal 
affairs.  The  interests  of  the  city  alone  are  con- 
cerned. That  is  the  reason  municipal  ownership 
has  been  so  successful  in  England  and  it  expiaius 
why  it  has  not  always  been  a  great  success  in 
America. 

Municipal  ownership  is  not  in  such  a  country  in 
a  state  of  theory  (hypothesis)  and  experiment.  It 
should  not  be  here  and  it  is  a  question  if  it  ever  was 


Ill 

in  such  a  state.  Rome  2,000  years  ago  possessed 
vast  waterworks  and  baths  and  a  lighting  system 
all  under  municipal  ownership  and  control.  All  the 
cities  of  the  ancient  world  owned  their  own  water- 
works systems.  Yet  the  question  is  argued  today 
in  American  cities  as  if  it  was  something  new  and 
untried.  Conducted  in  a  perfectly  businesslike 
way,  with  marked  efficiency  the  only  rule  for  ap- 
pointment and  promotion,  it  is  something  compara- 
tively new  here. 

The  only  argument  of  the  writer  against  munici- 
pal ownership  is  that  it  is  not  right  until  the  affairs 
can  be  conducted  in  a  businesslike  manner  as  in  pri- 
vate corporations.  In  private  corporations  an  em- 
ploye's value  is  rated  by  his  earning  capacity.  His 
efficiency  for  the  work  in  hand  is  somewhere  nearly 
proportioned  to  the  work  expected  of  him.  In  a 
municipality  it  too  often  happens  that  a  man's  fit- 
ness for  the  position  he  holds  is  apt  to  be  guaged  by 
his  usefulness  at  election  time.  Patronage,  more 
than  efficiency,  governs  his  appointment.  There- 
fore it  is  that  public  enterprises  are  so  seldom  econ- 
omically managed.  While  the  elected  officers  may 
be  perfectly  honest  in  their  intentions,  and  do  their 
own  work  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  with  little  de- 
sire to  perpetuate  themselves  in  office,  their  ap- 
pointees are  either  busy  feathering  their  own  nests 
before  next  election  day,  or  laying  wires  to  hold  on 
to  their  jobs,  and  the  best  way  to  hold  on  to  such  a 
job  is  not  always  to  attend  faithfully  to  the  work 
paid  for. 

Opponents  of  municipal  ownership  are   convinced 


112 

that  wise  laws  well  enforced  will  serve  everything 
and  leave  the  time  of  the  council  to  the  matters  of 
real  public  interest.  But  an  exception  is  generally 
made  in  favor  of  the  waterworks  system  being  under 
municipal  ownership  simply  because  of  the  thorough 
control  which  the  people  then  have  over  lire  protec- 
tion, the  protection  of  health  and  extensions  when 
needed  into  growing  districts.  The  hope  of  saving 
should  not  influence  in  the  public  ownership  of 
waterworks  for  sometimes  municipal  ownership  of 
waterworks  is  so  expensive  a  luxury  that  although 
taxes,  interest  and  profits  are  not  considered  in  the 
items  of  expense  attendant  upon  operation,  the  peo- 
ple are  extremely  likely  to  pay  more  for  their  water 
than  the  private  company  charges. 

In  general  the  items  of  expense  entering  into  the 
operation  of  a  municipal  plant  will  be  the  same  as 
those  entering  into  the  operation  of  a  pri- 
vate plant.  However,  it  is  not  best  to  fig 
ure  on  any  profit  for  the  business  is  a  co- 
operative enterprise  and  the  product  should  be 
sold  at  cost.  Taxes  cannot  be  figured  in  on  a  pub- 
lic plant  but  insurance  must  be.  The  interest  and 
sinking  fund  on  the  bonds  should  be  charged  as  an 
item  of  expense  but  no  interest  charged  on  the  in- 
vestment after  the  bonds  are  paid  up.  The  money 
is  permanently  invested.  It  is  not  right  either  to 
figure  into  the  cost  of  operation  a  fund  to  provide 
for  future  extensions.  These  will  be  met  by  the  fu- 
ture residents  when  needed.  As  the  noted  Irish 
member  of  parliament  .said,  "Do  not  be  so  careful 
to  take  care  of  posterity.  It  has  done  nothing  for 


us  and  our  grandfathers  let  us  paddle  our  own 
canoe."  Every  thinking  man  realizes  that  it  is  not 
well  to  tax  ourselves  in  this  generation  for  the 
whole  cost  of  an  enterprise  which  will  benefit  the 
next  generation  as  well. 

It  is  proposed  also  that  all  annual  extension  work 
should  be  borne  by  general  taxation  for  there  is  a 
good  return  to  the  city  at  large  and  the  amount 
needed  is  difficult  to  estimate  in  figuring  up  ex- 
penses of  operation  for  the  succeeding  year,  in  order 
to  fix  charges. 

So  then  we  have  to  consider1  as  legitimate  cost  of 
running  a  municipal  plant  the  interest  and  sinking 
fund  to  pay  off  the  bonded  indebtedness,  the  writing 
off  each  year  of  the  depreciation,  the  making  of  re- 
pairs, the  maintenance  of  the  whole  system  and  the  r 
cost  of  fuel,  labor,  administration,  insurance,  etc. 

The  revenue  from  the  works  should  be  from  two 
sources;  general  taxation  and  private  consumption. 
The  consumers  of  the  product  should  not  pay  the 
entire  expenses  for  they  are  the  progressive  element 
whose  property  has  been  improved.  The  owners  of 
unimproved  property  should  pay  a  part  of  the  cost. 
Every  enterprise  of  a  public  nature  in  the  town  in- 
creases the  value  of  all  property  and  the  unim- 
proved property  increases  in  value  in  a  greater 
ratio  than  improved  property.  So  if  it  is  a  lighting 
plant  the  city  should  pay  for  its  own  lights  from 
general  taxation  and  in  case  of  a  waterworks  plant, 
for  the  water  it  uses  or  has  a  right  to  use. 

This  is  the  true  theory  at  the  bottom  of  hydrant 
rental  and  payment  for  water  for  public  use  when 


114 

dealing  with  a  private  company.  It  is  not  right  to 
make  a  contract  at  a  flat  rate  with  a  water  company 
for  hydrants  for  a  term  of  years.  The  council 
should  annually  get  all  the  information  regarding 
cost  of  the  company's  plant,  cost  of  operation  and 
the  revenue  for  the  year  past.  Then  fix  the  rates 
on  an  equitable  basis  for  the  consumers  of  water 
and  guarantee  to  the  water  company  a  proper  return 
on  its  investment  by  making  up  the  deficiency  by 
the  payment  of  an  annual  sum  on  account  of  general 
benefit,  fire  protection  and  public  use.  In  return 
for  this  require  the  water  company  to  put  in  hy- 
drants whenever  and  wherever  ordered  by  the  city, 
the  sum  of  money  paid  by  the  city  being  independ- 
ent of  the  number  of  hydrants.  The  city  should 
own  the  hydrants  and  pay  for  their  erection,  con- 
nection with  the  water  mains  and  maintenance.  It 
is  a  grave  mistake  to  pay  a  certain  sum  per  month 
or  year  for  each  hydrant  as  it  operates  to  keep 
many  districts  out  of  the  reach  of  fire  protection  be- 
cause of  the  increased  cost  of  extra  hydrants.  Yet 
the  people  in  these  districts  have  their  share  of  the 
taxes  to  pay  for  fire  protection,  general  benefits  and 
public  use  of  water. 

There   comes   a   time   in  the   history    of 

THE        almost  every  place  when  the  idea  of  pur- 

VALLJE     chasing  an  existing  plant  has  to  be  con- 

OF  AN     sidered.       At    such    a    time    the     wisest 

OLD       course  is  to  send  for   an    outside    compe- 

PLANT     tent    man    to  make   an   estimate  of  the 

proper  price  to  be  paid. 
There  are  three  values  to  an  old  plant  of  a  private 


H5 

company:  First — The  value  to  the  company  as  an 
investment.  Second — The  value  of  the  plant  by 
reason  of  the  material  in  it.  Third — The  value  of 
the  plant  to  the  community.  This  third  value  may 
be  nearly  what  the  company  places  as  the  income 
producing  value,  and  again,  it  may  be  far  lower  than 
the  actual  value  of  the  material  in  the  plant.  The 
value  to  the  community  depends  upon  the  efficiency 
of  the  plant.  If  it  has  been  well  designed  and 
cared  for  and  all  extensions  made  have  been  under 
the  direction  and  with  the  approval  of  the  council, 
or  board  of  public  works,  then  the  people  may  pay 
the  price  the  company  asks.  Otherwise  there  is  a 
serious  economic  loss  possible  by  reason  of  the 
duplication  of  an  already  efficient  machine.  But  if 
the  plant  has  not  been  well  designed  and  the  ex- 
tensions show  that  a  niggardly  policy  has  been  pur- 
sued and  there  is  evident  a  lack  of  judgment  in  the 
management  of  many  of  the  small  though  important 
details  it  is  possible  the  people  have  no  system  to 
purchase;  it  is  simply  a  plant  and  a  poor  one.  It 
may  happen  the  plant  can  be  taken  at  a  proper  val- 
uation and  remodeled  to  do  all  the  work  required  of 
it  at  a  less  cost  than  an  entirely  new  plant  would 
cost.  All  these  are  matters  to  be  determined  at  the 
time  of  examination. 

The  person  employed  to  examine  the  plant  has 
first  to  determine,  as  near  as  can  be,  the  original 
cost.  To  this  he  must  add  the  cost  of  all  exten- 
sions. He  must  ascertain  the  exact  indebtedness 
of  the  company  and  the  state  of  the  indebtedness. 
The  yearly  interest  charge  and  cost  of  operation. 


n6 

The  revenue  from  private  consumers  and  the  rev- 
enue from  the  city.  The  life  of  the  franchise  and 
the  length  of  life  left  in  all  existing  contracts,  if  any. 
And  generally  the  value  of  the  plant  to  the  commu- 
nity, the  general  features  of  design,  the  present  con- 
dition and  cost  of  making  it  adequate  to  serve  the 
town  if  purchased.  The  value  of  the  material 
should  also  appear  but  it  is  not  of  such  importance 
as  the  other  items,  for  the  deterioration  must  be 
naturally  an  estimate  for  much  of  the  plant. 

With  such  information  before  them  the  people 
can  act  intelligently  when  it  comes  to  voting  on 
bonds.  The  embarrassing  features  of  a  purchase  by 
the  city  are  the  value  to  place  on  any  existing  long 
term  contracts  the  city  may  have  with  the  company, 
and  whether  the  city  should  pay  anything  for  the 
franchise  right,  which  has  been  obtained  from  the 
city.  These  questions  require  expert  advice. 


Mr.  A.  S.    Baldwin,   writing  in  the 
AN  Merchants'  Association  Review  (San 

ARGUMENT     Francisco)    in    April,     1900,   argues 
AGAINST       against  the  purchase  by  the   city  of 
MUNICIPAL      the  Spring  Valley  waterworks  plant 
OWNERSHIP     and  favors  public  control  as  opposed 
to    public    ownership.     The    gist  of 
tne  argument  is  that  with  municipal  control  instead 
of  municipal  ownership  the  city  has   no  responsibil- 
ity, no  debt  and  no  liability  of  any  kind.      With  the 
limitation  that  the   rates  fixed   annually   will  allow 
the  company  a  fair  and  just  return    upon  its  invest- 


iiy 

ment,  the  city  under  the  general  state  law  fixes  the 
water  rates  to  be  charged.  Municipal  control  also 
means  that  the  city  derives  a  revenue  from  the 
taxes  paid  by  the  private  corporation.  So  far  his 
argument  is  good.  But  he  goes  farther: 

"Private  ownership  means  that  the  corporation 
borrows,  but  never  pays  anything  except  inter- 
est on  the  debt.  It  issues  bonds  or  sells  more  stock 
whenever  money  for  permanent  improvements  is  re- 
quired. It  renews  its  loans  by  another  bond  issue. 
It  borrows  for  land  purchases  and  new  construction. 
The  taxpayers  and  consumers  buy  from  the  private 
corporation  water  and  pay  enough  to  enable  the 
company  to  pay  taxes,  operating  expenses  and  inter- 
est only  on  its  obligations.  The  private  company 
owes  always.  Its  stockholders  and  bondholders  are 
its  mortgagees.  The  individuality  of  its  creditors 
changes  but  the  debt  is  always  there.  Its  debt  is  a 
flat  loan  constantly  renewed.  Not  so  with  the  city. 
It  borrows  and  must  pay.  The  debts  must  all  be 
liquidated  within  40  years.  It  is  an  installment  loan. 
There  is  the  annual  installment  of  principal,  also 
the  interest  on  what  is  due,  and  also  new  construc- 
tion, extension  of  pipe-lines;  also  water  rights,  addi- 
tions to  pumping  plants,  land  purchases,  repairs, 
salaries  and  general  expenses,  all  to  be  provided  for 
either  out  of  income  or  taxes.  Hence  the  difference 
between  the  amount  to  be  raised  annually  by  the 
city  and  that  required  under  private  ownership. " 
etc.  etc. 

The  one  fault  with  the  above  argument  is  that 
the  private  company  works  under  and  by  virtue 
of  a  franchise  granted  by  the  city  and  is  at  the 
mercy  of  the  city  when  the  franchise  expires.  Hence 
the  entire  cost  of  construction  and  the  value  of  the 
investment  must  be  earned  by  the  company  and  the 


u8 

money  returned  to  the  stockholders  and  bondholders 
which  they  have  invested,  plus  good  interest  and  a 
snug  profit.  The  time  in  which  the  franchise  ex- 
pires may  be  only  20  or  25  years  and  the  people  may 
have  40  years  in  which  to  pay  the  city  bonds.  Or 
the  people  can  refund  every  ten  or  20  years  and 
keep  the  debt  hanging  along.  This  is  not  econo- 
mical but  at  the  same  time  the  payments  can  be 
smaller  and  borne  by  several  generations  whereas 
the  private  company  must  get  all  its  investment 
i  ack  before  the  term  of  the  franchise  is  ended. 

The  tax  rates  in  badly  governed  cities  and  also  in 
cities  owning  all  sorts  of  public  utilities  are  high. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  in  owning  public  utilities 
the  bonded  indebtedness  and  the  consequent  tax 
rates  do  not  become  too  much  of  a  burden.  In 
shifting  from  indirect  to  direct  taxation  there  is  not 
always  economy.  It  may  be  that  the  opponents  of 
municipal  ownership  on  general  principles  may  be 
correct  and  that  wise  laws  well  and  intelligently  en- 
forced are  better  than  municipal  ownership. 


Municipal  securities  are  in  general  con- 
BONDS  sidered  a  desirable  investment  although 

the  buyer  is  put  upon  inquiry  as  to  the 
validity  of  the  issue.  Being  issued  under  statute 
every  statutory  provision  must  be  carefully  observed, 
or  the  issue  will  be  void.  As  a  rule  it  is  well  for  a 
small  place  considering  a  bond  issue  to  secure  the 
advice  of  the  best  attorney  in  the  place,  or  if  he  is 
not  a  man  of  good  experience  then  secure  the  service 


H9 

of  some  attorney  recommended  by  a  representative 
broker  or  dealer  in  municipal  securities.  There  are 
attorneys  in  many  cities  whose  practice  is  almost 
exclusively  devoted  to  such  work. 

To  quote,  a  well  known  financial  and  corporation 
attorney  in  an  an  interview  in  The  American  Banker,: 
"Brokers  are  careful  in  these  matters.  In  fact  I 
know  of  no  first  class  brokerage  house  which  will 
issue  such  securities,  unless,  besides  the  certificate 
of  a  local  attorney  that  tbe  obligation  is  properly 
issued,  they  have  an  opinion  from  special  corpora- 
tion lawyers  confirming  that  view  of  the  case.'7 

The  insufficiency  of  the  security  does  not  operate 
against  the  sale  of  bonds  so  much  as  ill  advised  action 
in  their  issue.  Such  operations  are  often  undertaken 
hastily  and  without  due  care.  Records  are  scanty 
and  a  lack  of  detail  and  knowledge  shown  which 
affects  seriously  their  security  and  hampers  their 
sale.  Bonds  are  sold  at  a  prenium,  at  par  and  be- 
low par.  To  secure  their  sale  at  par  or  at  a  preniuin, 
all  action  taken  must  be  deliberate  and  well  con- 
sidered, due  attention  paid  to  the  ruling  market 
rates  of  interest  and  the  records  full.  It  is  better  to 
have  the  records  prolix  than  injured  by  want  of 
particulars.  A  mistake  in  a  bond  issue  has  three 
effects.  It  results  in  increased  expense;  it  causes  all 
securities  of  the  place  to  be  looked  at  suspiciously, 
audit  holds  the  officials  up  to  ridicule.  Mud  slinging 
abuse  or  wrongful  criticism  can  be  stood  but  once  a 
target  for  ridicule  and  a  man  loses  much  influence. 


120 


Upon  the  subject  of   municipal  con- 
MUN1CIPAL     trol  volumes  could  be  written.     It  is 
CONTROL      best  for  any  small  place    having  ap- 
plications   for    franchises    for   street 
car  lines,  telephones,  electric  lighting,  gas  lighting, 
etc.  to  employ  some    competent    person    to    prepare 
the  terms  on  which  the    franchise    will    be   granted 
and  then  advertise  the  frnachise  under  these    terms 
for  sale  to    the    highest    bidder.     The    innumerable 
details  can  hardly  be  touched    upon  here,  and  new 
features  become  known  daily. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

This  chapter  is    written  for  the  city 
THE  CITY      engineer  of  a  small  town  who    may 

ENGINEER  have  had  little  or  no  experience  in 
municipal  work,  before  his  appoint- 
ment or  election  to  that  position.  The  writer  has 
served  as  city  engineer  in  a  town  the  population  of 
which  was  variously  estimated  as  being  from  1200 
to  2000,  and  afterwards  in  another  place  where  the 
population  was  3000  to  5000,  according  to  whom  one 
talked,  and  therefore  hopes  he  can  give  hints  of 
value.  He  has  also  been  in  a  number  of  places 
ranging  in  size  from  500  to  300,000  inhabitants  on 
professional  business  and  has  come  in  contact  with 
many  engineers  trying  to  keep  up  their  work  and 
with  methods  widely  varying. 

One  of  the  first  things  the  engineer  should  do  is 
to  subscribe  to  some  first  class  engineering  periodi- 
cal. To  several  if  he  can.  Municipal  Engineering, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  is  a  monthly  publication  the  sub- 
scription price  of  which  is  $2.00  per  year.  The 
name  indicates  the  field  it  covers.  While  a  valuable 
paper  it  attempts  a  great  deal  on  the  popular  side  of 
the  subject  and  is  a  favorite  among  non-technical 
readers.  Every  councilman  would  be  benefitted  by 
subscribing  to  it. 

The  Engineering  News  and  the  Engineering 
Record  of  New  York  City,  both  weeklies  and  $5.00 
per  year,  are  too  well  known  and  too  highly  regarded 


122 

by  the  profession  to  need  any  special  recommendation 
here.  The  Engineering  News  attempts  to  cover  a 
much  wider  field  than  the  Engineering  Record  and 
succeeds  admirably.  The  Engineering  Record  is 
particularly  good  in  descriptions  of  contractors'  plant 
and  machinery  and  erection,  and  in  its  descriptions 
of  sewerage  and  sanitary  work. 

The  Journal  of   the    Association    of    Engineering 
Societies  is  published  in  Philadelphia  under  the  care 
of  John  C.  Trautwine,  jr.  and  is  a  monthly,  $3.00  per 
year.     Many  of  the    local     engineering    societies    of 
the  United  States  have  formed     an    Association    for 
the  purpose  of  having  their  proceedings  and    special 
papers  printed  at  a  minimum  of  cost  and  in  order  to 
bring  all  the  engineers  of  the    country    more  closely 
together.     The  Journal    contains    selected    papers  . 
read  before  the  various  societies    and    these    papers 
are  valuable   contributions    to    technical    literature. 

The  Engineering  Magazine,  New  York  City,  $3.00 
per  year,  is  a  monthly  and  very  valuable  for  its    ab- 
stracted articles  on  various  branches  of  engineering 
work  and  the  extremely  valuable    index   to   current 
technical  literature. 

In  his  library  it  is  of  course  assumed  that  every 
engineer  has  a  copy  of  Trautwine's  Civil  Engineer's 
pocket  book.  Then  add  on  the  subject  of  pave- 
ments Judson  on  uCity  Roads  and  Pavements"  $1.00, 
or  in  flexible  board  covers,  75  cents.  The  next 
book  should  be  Merriman's  "Elements  of  Sanitary 
Engineering"  $2.00.  It  takes  up  the  subjects  of 
pavements,  sewerage,  water  supply,  street  sweeping 
and  garbage  collection  in  text  book  form.  It  is  an 


I23 

excellent  introduction  to  the  science  of  municipal 
engineering.  Bauineister's  "Cleaning  and  Sewerage 
of  Cities,"  $2.00,  is  an  excellent  work  covering  much 
the  same  ground  and  translated  from  the  German. 
The  city  engineer  should  have  both.  On  water 
supply  the  best  work  to  start  with  is  Goodell  on 
''Water  Works  for  Small  Cities  and  Towns"  $2.00  and 
Billings'  "Some  details  of  Water  Works  Construc- 
tion" $2.00.  To  follow  these  works,  if  a  project  is  on 
hand  to  sewer  the  place  or  design  a  water  \vorks 
S3^stem  and  the  engineer  is  diffident,  get  Folwell  on 
Sewerage,  $3.00,  or  uWater  Supply"  $4.00.  These  two 
books  give  a  vast  amount  of  practical  information. 
Fanning  on  Water  Supply  $5.00,  is  the  standard. 
Staley  and  Pierson  on  "The  Separate  System  of 
Sewerage,"  $3.00,  is  an  excellent  work  dealing  with 
only  one  system  of  sewerage.  It  touches  upon 
house  drainage  however  and  methods  of  payment  for 
work.  Waring  on  "Drainage  of  Cities  and  Lands," 
$6.00  is  an  excellent  work  also,  but  deals  with  only 
one  system  of  sewerage. 

No  city  engineer  can  afford  to  do  without  Johnson 
on  "Engineering  Contracts  and  Specifications"  $3.00. 
It  is  presumed  that  the  engineer  is  up  to  date  in 
methods  of  surveying.  Johnson,  "Gillespie's  Higher 
Surveying,"  revised  by  Staley,  Raymonds  "Plane  Sur- 
veying" and  Carhart's  "Plane  Surveying"  all  contain 
much  to  interest  a  municipal  engineer.  Raymond's 
is  a  most  excellent  work  for  the  engineer  in  private 
practice,  $3.00. 

The  writer  has  not  given  the  above  as  an  adver- 
tisement and  has  not  consulted  any  publishers  in 


124 

preparing  the  above  list.  It  does  not  purport  to  be 
a  complete  library  but  simply  to  be  the  nucleus  of  a 
library  and  lists  the  books  he  has  found  useful  in 
his  own  work — given  in  the  order  of  their  possible 
value  to  the  city  engineer.  To  increase  the  list 
properly,  would  exhaust  the  catalogues  of  the 
technical  book  publishers.  On  the  subject  of  the 
purification  of  water  Rideal's  "Water  and  its  Puri- 
fication" is  a  good  work,  as  it  covers  the  field  well. 
$1.60;  Sidney  Barwise  "Sewerage  Disposal"  $2.00  is 
a  new  work  and  very  comprehensive.  They  are 
both  English  works.  Dr.  Rideal  on  "Bacterial  Treat- 
ment of  Sewerage"  $3.50,  is  good.  In  Van  Nos- 
trand's  "Science  Series"  are  many  valuable  little 
works  at  reasonable  price,  50  cents  each.  Some  can 
hardly  be  spoken  of  too  highly.  Almost  any  book 
dealer  can  procure  the  above  works  at  the  prices 
given  and  all  of  the  periodicals  named  have  book 
departments  and  will  procure  any  book  published. 
No  engineer  can  afford  to  throw  away  a  catalogue 
or  price  list  nor  any  fragmentary  bit  of  technical 
literature.  The  day  is  sure  to  come  when  he  will 
want  it,  and  want  it  bad.  To  preserve  this  matter 
a  card  index  is  first  needed.  The  writer  uses  one 
he  made  with  a  cigar  box  to  hold  it.  The  box  is 
35^  inches  high,  4^  inches  wide  and  9  inches 
long  (inside  measurement.)  He  had  the  local  news- 
paper office  deliver  to  him  500  cards  each  3^  x  4^ 
inches  on  white  cardboard.  He  had  made  also  122 
cards  of  heavier  colored  board.  These  cards  how- 
ever were  4^x4^  inches  in  size.  They  were 
trimmed  so  that  each  had  a  projection  an  inch  and 


125 

a  half  wide  and  three  quarters  of  an  inch  high  above 
the  general  level  of  the  cards  in  the  box.  One  pro- 
jection was  at  the  extreme  left  of  the  card,  the  pro- 
jection on  the  next  card  was  a  little  to  the  right, 
the  next  farther  to  the  right,  etc.  until  the  width  of 
the  box  was  reached  with  five  cards.  Each  projec- 
tion was  then  lettered  by  placing  first  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet  on  each  projection  in  their  order  and 
then  going  over  the  cards  again  and  placing  after 
each  letter  a  vowel  on  one  of  the  projections  so  that 
on  looking  at  the  box  one  sees  on  the  colored  pro- 
jections above  the  general  level,  Aa,  Ae,  Ai,  Ao,  Au. 
Next  to  A  conies  B,  etc.  The  colored  cards  are 
placed  in  a  box  with  a  white  card  between  each  and 
behind  the  whole  lot  are  theTemainder  of  the  white 
cards  to  be  called  into  service  when  needed.  Articles 
are  indexed  by  cross  indexing  and  cross  referencing 
plentifully,  using  only  one  side  of  the  white  cards,  so 
it  is  not  difficult  to  refer  to  any  article  wanted  on 
short  notice.  The  first  vowel  governs  the  space  to  be 
used  after  the  main  letter  in  the  word  to  be  indexed. 
Such  an  index  is  valuable  for  indexing  maps  and 
notes  as  well  as  fragmentary  printed  matter. 

To  contain  the  catalogues  and  fragmentary  litera- 
ture it  is  not  difficult  to  purchase  pamphlet  filing 
cases  in  stationery  stores.  But  they  may  also  be 
made  by  a  man  who  is  compelled  to  economise. 
Out  of  thick  cardboard,  or  pasteboard  make  cases 
three  inches  wide  and  seven  inches  high.  They 
should  be  ten  inches  long  on  the  bottom  and  seven 
inches  long  on  top,  only  one  end  closed.  Shelves  can 
be  made  to  contain  them  aud  a  ring  should  be  placed 


126 

on  the  end  to  draw  them  out  when  needed.  If  the 
shelves  are  placed  close  together  and  the  boxes 
fitted  to  them  there  is  little  annoyance  from  dust. 
The  cases  are  to  be  numbered  and  no  attempt  made 
at  classification  in  the  cases.  Each  pamphlet  or 
piece  of  paper  simply  needs  to  be  marked  with  the 
number  of  a  case  and  put  in  as  it  is  received,  alter 
indexing  it.  The  pamphlet  library  becomes  a  regu- 
lar encyclopedia  after  a  while.  It  is  invaluable  to 
every  progressive  man,  or  to  all  men  who  wish  to  be 
progressive  and  up  to  date.  The  writer  does  not  ap- 
prove of  weeding  out  each  year  or  two  as  some 
recommend.  It  is  a  difficult  task  and  much  time  is 
wasted.  Let  the  matter  accumulate  and  executors 
can  do  the  weeding  out,  which  will  likely  be  by  a 
bonfire  in  the  back  yard,  of  the  whole  collection. 
When  a  card  in  the  index  becomes  full  on  one  side 
it  is  not  always  best  to  start  in  on  the  other.  Com- 
mence with  another  card.  Each  subdivision  will 
then  grow  according  as  the  letter  is  used.  Each 
white  card  would  have  pencilled  on  it  the  main  letter 
and  vowel  also.  As  this  card  index  has  no  card 
holder  nor  rod  the  engineer  using  it  had  best  go 
through  it  once  in  a  while  to  see  that  he  has  not 
put  any  of  the  cards  back  in  the  wrong  places. 

Such  pamphlet  filing  cases  as  are  described  will 
take  a  catalogue  or  magazine  of  standard  size. 
Special  clippings  can  be  pasted  to  sheets  of  card- 
board or  there  can  be  filing  cases  made  to  contain 
long  envelopes.  Each  envelope  can  have  written  on 
the  outside  the  full  title  of  all  articles  folded  in  it 
and  these  articles  can  de  indexed  simply  by  the  case 


127 

containing  the  envelope.  It  is  to  be  regetted  that 
so  many  manufacturers  persist  in  getting  out  cata- 
logues of  unwieldy  size.  Many  are  excellent  works 
of  art  and  too  much  expense  entirely  is  gone  to  in 
their  production.  The  money  spent  on  half 
tones  is  not  wasted  but  the  money  spent  on  heavy 
paper  with  a  glazy  smooth  surface  is  thrown  away 
especially  if  it  is  in  a  comparatively  thin  book 
having  pages  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  square 
which  will  persist  in  doubling  back  and  falling  all 
over.  The  effort  to  hold  one  of  those  pages  out 
while  sitting  back  in  an  office  chair  often  tires  a  man 
exceedingly.  A  Councilman  said  to  the  writer  once 
while  looking  at  the  catalogue  of  a  road  machine, 
"I  am  prejudiced  against  that  firm  simply  because 
they  think  I  have  got  good  enough  eyes  to  try  and 
follow  a  line  of  print  two  feet  long  and  break  rny 
-arm  trying  to  hold  up  the—  —page.  They 
could  put  all  those  cuts  on  a  page  less  than  half  that 
size  if  they  did  not  try  to  group  them  all  on  one 
page  or  they  could  make  a  pretty  little  book  with 
that  printed  matter  and  have  all  those  nice  half  tone 
engravings  scattered  through  like  a  regular  Harpers 
Magazine.  It  looks  to  me  as  if  some  printer  had 
buncoed  them."  Five  by  seven  inches  and  7x9 
inches  are  £ood  sizes  and  a  man  feels  especially 
grateful  to  a  firm  which  can  get  a  catalogue  out  in  a 
size  which  will  go  in  a  coat  pocket,  for  if  it  contains 
matter  which  interests  him  he  can  carry  it  around 
and  take  a  peep  at  it  once  in  a  while  until  he  has 
gotten  the  good  of  it.  When  it  comes  to  preserva- 


.128 

tion  the  big  fellow  is  apt  to  be  cut  up  or  thrown  away 
and  thus  not  preserved  at  all. 

The  somewhat  common  fault  in  the  office  of  the 
city  engineer  or  town  surveyor  in  a  small  place  is  a 
lack  of  records  of  work  done.  He  very  seldom  gets 
a  salary  and  oftentimes  his  pay  is  small  and  his 
bills  paid  grudgingly.  Nevertheless  he  should  keep 
complete  records  of  all  the  work  done  during  his  in- 
cumbency and. he  is  no  less  than  a  thief  if  he  walks 
out  of  office  and  retains  notes  which  would  be  useful 
to  his  successor  in  office  and  to  the  city. 

It  is  a  too  common  practice  for  the  city  engineer 
to  retain  his  notes  when  he  goes  out  of  office.  All 
surveyors  and  engineers  should  return  to  their  em- 
ployers plats  with  enough  data  on  them  for  any 
competent  man  to  retrace  the  lines  and  the  city 
engineer  should,  in  addition  leave  behind  in  the 
archives  of  his  office  a  record  of  the  plats.  He 
should  also  leave  behind  him  full  copies  of  plans  and 
specifications  for  work  executed  during  his  incum- 
bency. 

The  first  thing  which  should  be  done  would  be  to 
get  from  the  office  of  the  Recorder  copies  of  all  plats 
of  the  city  which  have  been  recorded  and  also  copies 
of  all  the  field  notes.  A  map  on  a  scale  of  about 
200  feet  to  an  inch  should  be  made  and  notes  made 
of  points  where  it  has  been  difficult  to  make  things 
"gibe."  Then  as  surveys  are  made  and  information 
secured  the  new  facts  gained  can  be  put  in  con- 
venient shape  for  reference  and  red  ink  notes  made 
on  the  plat  to  indicate  where  the  information  may 
be  had  which  will  elucidate  the  points. 


I29 

There  should  be  also  a  plat  on  a  scale  of  about 
400  feet  to  an  inch  which  should  show  only  the  out- 
lines of  the  blocks  and  not  give  any  dimensions — 
except  by  scaling.  Upon  this  map  should  be  platted 
all  elevations  so  that  finally  when  the  work  of  level- 
ing has  been  carried  far  enough  contours  can  be 
drawn  on  it  and  the  information  necessary  for  a 
study  of  the  drainage  and  sewerage  of  the  place  may 
be  in  a  convenient  form.  Such  a  map  is  invaluable. 
The  contour  interval  can  be  whatever  the  engineer 
chooses  to  select.  In  some  places  one  foot  may  be 
necessar}^  or  advisable,  while  in  other  places  twenty 
feet  would  serve.  The  contour  interval  should  be 
determined  by  the  ground  and  the  importance  of 
the  study  of  any  particular  locality. 

For  interpolating  contours  the  writer  has  used  for 
years  a  method  described  by  him  the  Engineering 


News  of  May  loth.  1900  and  a  cut   of  which    he    is 
enabled  to    produce    here    by    the    courtesy    of   the 


130 

editor.  A  dotted  line  is  drawn  connecting  the  two 
points  of  which  the  elevation  is  known  and  which 
have  been  plotted  in  their  relative  positions  on  the 
map.  A  piece  of  cross  section,  or  profile  paper, 
marked  as  shown,  is  laid  at  any  angle  and  one  end 
is  at  one  of  the  points.  The  end  at  the  point  is  at 
the  elevation  of  that  point  marked  on  the  cross  sec- 
tion paper.  .  A  triangle  connects  the  other  point  and 
the  similar  elevation  marked  on  the  strip  of  paper. 
The  triangle  is  moved  along  another  triangle  or 
straight  edge  and  at  each  contour  interval  decided 
upon  a  dot  is  marked  on  the  line  connecting  the  two 
plotted  points. 

In  the  issue  of  June  2ist.  1900  of  the  same  paper 
Mr.  H.  F.  Bascorn,  C.  E.  described  a  method  origi- 
nal with  himself  which  is  superior.  He  lays  a  strip 
of  cross  section  or  profile  paper  along  a  line  connect- 
ing the  two  points.  This  piece  of  paper  has  no 
figures  marked  on  it.  He  then  puts  on  top  a  grad- 
uated strip  at  an  angle,  precisely  as  shown  above/ 
but  instead  of  a  triangle  being  used  to  put  in  the 
points  he  swings  the  graduated  strip  around  until 
the  graduation  on  it  corresponding  to  the  elevation 
of  the  second  point  intersects  with  a  line  on  the 
plain  piece  of  ruled  paper  touching  that  point.  He 
then  follows  along  a  ruled  line  from  each  graduation 
and  where  the  edge  of  this  plain  paper  marks  an 
imaginary  line  connecting  the  two  points  of  eleva- 
tion he  puts  a  dot.  When  the  pieces  of  paper  are 
removed  he  connects  these  dots  with  others  of  equal 
elevation  between  other  points,  in  order  to  draw  in 
the  contours. 


I31 

For  a  ready  method  of  covering  a  large  area  of 
ground  preparatory  to  a  study  for  sewerage  or 
drainage  or  street  grades,  nothing  can  compare  with 
the  stadia  method.  The  writer  prepared  in  1893  an 
article  on  the  subject  for  the  catalogue  of  J.  C.  Sala 
and  in  that  article  gave  a  method  of  preparing  a 
diagram  for  reducing  the  rod  readings  to  horizontal 
distances  and  also  a  diagram  for  getting  the  differ- 
ence in  elevation  between  two  points. 

Mess.  Wiley  &  Son,  New  York  City,  sell  for  50 
cents  a  diagram  designed  by  Professor  Johnson.  It 
is  excellent  and  can  be  thoroughly  recommended. 
It  is  accurate  and  well  adapted  for  office  use,  its  size 
(17  x  22  inches)  preventing  its  being  taken  into  the 
field.  The  writer  uses,  to  take  to  the  field  and  for 
all  side  shot  reductions  the  Cox  Computer.  This  is 
about  eight  inches  square  and  has  a  circular  com- 
puting scale.  The  Cox  Stadia  Computer  is  sold  by 
Mess.  W.  &  L.  E.  Gurley  of  Troy,  N.  Y.  for  75 


ENG.NEWS. 


cents.  There  are  slide  rules  of  foreign  manufacture 
on  the  market  but  the  best  stadia  slide  rule  the 
writer  has  seen  is  the  Colby  slide  rule  which  is  high 
priced. 

While  on  the  subject  of  diagrams    attention    may 
be  called  to  the  following  diagram,  on  the    principle 


132 

of  similar  triangles  for    assessing    the   cost    of    im- 
provements along  the  frontage  of  property. 

To  resume  the  subject  of  records.  For  informa- 
tion of  a  permanent  nature  relating  to  property 
lines  and  field  qotes  the  best  plats  are  on  a  scale  of 
100  feet  to  an  inch.  These  plats  should  show 
nothing  but  lines  and  elevations  finally  determined 
and  should  be  in  such  detail  that  any  competent 
surveyor  can  retrace  the  lines.  It  is  best  to  prepare 
a  plat  on  a  convenient  size  sheet  and  add  to  it  little 
by  little  until  the  sheet  is  full  and  nothing  in  that 
neighborhood  remains  to  be  determined.  Then  have 
it  officially  adopted  by  the  Council  and  placed  on 
record.  Monuments  should  be  either  of  granite  or 
concrete  four  inches  square  and  three  feet  long,  set 
at  the  intersection  of  the  center  lines.  The  top 
should  be  a  few  inches  below  the  street  surface  and 
it  is  well  to  have  the  top  serve  as  a  bench  mark  for 
levels  as  well.  A  good  temporary  monument  is 
made  of  a  two  inch  iron  pipe  two  feet  long,  driven 
into  the  ground,  filled  with  wood  and  having  its 
center  determined  by  a  nail  driven  in  the  top.  On 
out  of  the  way  roads  and  "lanes  where  no  improve- 
ments have  been  made  a  good  monument  is  made  by 
taking  a  post  hole  digger  and  putting  down  a  hole 
two  or  three  feet  deep.  In  the  middle  of  this  hole 
drive  a  stick  one  inch  square,  exactly  centered.  Fill 
the  space  around  with  a  lime  paste.  Such  a  monu- 
ment is  cheap  and  lasting.  It  was  first  used  by 
George  C.  Power,  City  Bngineer  of  San  Buenaven- 
tura, Cal. 

When  a  street  is  improved  the  monuments  should 


133 

be  carefully  referenced  and  replaced.  It  is  a  good 
plan  when  a  concrete  curb  or  cement  sidewalk  is 
built,  to  place  in  the  cement  a  few  nails  from  which 
to  make  further  surveys  and  thus  avoid  the  nuisance 
of  tearing  up  the  street  surface  and  also  because  it 
is  generally  easier  to  work  along  the  edge  of  the 
curb  than  in  the  middle  of  the  street. 

One  more  set  of  plats  is  required.  These  are  for 
the  special  study  of  certain  blocks  and  lots  which 
may  bother  a  surveyor  to  adjust  and  may  be  on  any 
scale  from  ten  feet  to  an  inch  to  50  feet  and  show 
all  the  work  in  detail.  In  fact  the  writer  has  been 
in  the  habit  of  preserving  nearly  all  his  calculations 
as  well  on  these  sheets.  The  plat  itself  may  occupy 
a  small  portion  of  the  sheet  and  all  the  calculations 
may  be  placed  there  with  it. 

It  is  not  supposed  the  engineer  should  stand  all 
the  expense  himself  of  this  work.  It  should  require 
but  little  argument  to  show  the  members  of  the 
Council  how  important  such  work  is  and  sometimes 
they  will  consent  to  help  him  out.  Many  Councils 
however  will  refuse  to  pay  one  cent  and  some  men 
think  the  fixing  and  recording  of  lines  had  better  be 
left  to  other  future  Councils.  They  are  afraid  of 
trouble  during  their  incumbency.  When  lines  are 
being  surveyed  which  are  likely  to  embroil  the 
engineer  and  Council  in  controversies  the  surveyor 
had  best  have  at  hand  "A  Manual  of  Land  Survey- 
ing giving  the  Law  and  Practice"  $3.00,  by  Hodg- 
man  where  he  will  find  digests  of  several  hundred 
court  decisions  and  comments  of  value.  With  such 
a  work  at  his  elbow  it  is  not  likely  court  decisions 


134 

will  be  against  any  of  his  work.  "Engineering  and 
Architectural  Jurisprudence"  by  John  Cassan  Wait, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  and  an  attorney  of  note,  is  a  work 
no  engineer  can  well  afford  to  be  without  if  he  has 
much  construction  work  in  hand.  "Architect, 
Owner  and  Builder  before  the  Law"  by  Clarke  is 
another  work  principally  valuable  however  to  those 
in  charge  of  building  construction.  The  first  work 
costs  $6.00  and  the  second  $4.00. 

For  recording  notes  in  books  the  writer  used  as  a 
starter,  books  5*^  by  8J^  inches  in  size  containing 
100  pages.  They  can  be  obtained  from  any  sta- 
tioner without  any  vertical  ruling  on  the  pages  for 
$3  oo  per  dozen.  One  should  be  marked  "Street 
and  Lot  Surveys"  and  in  it  be  placed  a  diagram  of 
all  lots  surveyed  and  a  copy  of  this  diagram  be 
given  to  the  owner,  having  on  the  lower  corner  a 
statement  as  to  the  book  and  page  in  which  it  is 
recorded  and  the  date  of  record.  A  diagram  of 
particular  points  fixed  in  street  lines  can  also  be  put 
in  this  book  together  with  field  notes  of  street  and 
lot  surveys. 

A  second  book  can  be  marked  "Monuments  and 
Bench  Marks"  and  contain  diagrams,  not  drawn  to 
scale,  of  monument  and  bench  mark  references, 
with  particular  information  relating  to  such  matters. 
A  third  can  contain  notes  -of  sewer  locations,  etc. 
Whenever  any  plats  are  referred  to  in  the  books 
they  should  be  carefully  designated  and  on  the 
plats  should  be  notes  calling  attention  to  the  matter 
in  the  books,  giving  the  letter  of  the  book  and  the 
page.  All  this  matter  should  be  carelully  indexed 


135 

alphabetically  in  an  index  book  hnng  on    the    office 
wall. 

For  information  about  levels  and  profiles  a  plat 
and  profile  book  called  "Dunham's  Plat  and  Profile 
Book"  is  as  good  as  anything  the  writer  has  found. 
It  has  convenient  size  pages  and  can  be  easily 
carried  in  the  pocket.  On  the  odd  numbered  page 
is  simply  a  border  and  on  the  enclosed  space  can  be 
written  notes  and  placed  diagrams  to  assist  in  under- 
standing the  matter  on  the  opposite  profile  page. 
On  the  ordinary  scale  the  page  can  be  arranged  to 
hold  a  profile  of  3000  feet  of  street  but  of  course  the 
scale  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  circumstances.  The 
writer  has  used  a  page  for  blocks  of  all  lengths  al- 
tering of  course  the  ratio  of  the  vertical  and  horizon- 
tal scales  on  each  page.  These  books  contain 
pages  for  36  profiles  and  cost  $i.ooeach.  Formerly 
they  were  printed  on  a  better  quality  of  paper  than 
at  present  and  the  lines  of  the  plate  were  light. 
The  covers  were  of  leather  but  now  they  are  an 
imitation  leather  and  the  paper  used  is  not  so  smooth 
and  the  plate  prints  dark  heavy  lines.  There  is 
room  for  an  improvement  by  having  the  books  made 
in  the  former  better  style  or  else  give  the  engineer 
the  benefit  in  the  decrease  in  the  cost  of  production 

by  lowering  the  price,  which  has  not    been    altered. 

• 

The  engineer  will  never  be  able  to  get 

FILING     rid  of  drawings    which  can  only  be  pre- 

OF         served  in  roll  form.     There  are  too  many 

PLATS      things    to  be    placed    on  large  sheets  of 

paper.      But  an  endeavor  should  be  made 

to  keep  as  much  information  as  possible  on  sheets. 


136 

Four  sizes  of  drawings  can  be  used.  UA"  sheets 
are  9x12  inches.  "B"  sheets  are  12x18  inches. 
UC"  sheets  are  18x24  an^  "D"  sheets  are  24x36 
inches.  Sheets  between  these  sizes  are  kept  with 
next  larger  size.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  above  per- 
mits of  the  best  possible  use  of  rolls  of  paper  36 
inches  wide. 

The  sheets  should  be  carefully  indexed  by  card 
index  and  each  should  be  numbered.  It  is  best  to 
number  the  drawings  in  the  order  made,  regardless 
of  size,  and  index  by  title  of  drawing,  letter  and 
number.  A  portfolio  can  be  made  to  contain  them 
or  can  be  purchased  at  low  cost.  The  portfolios  can 
be  hung  on  the  office  walls,  or,  if  the  engineer  is 
wealthy  enough,  can  be  kept  in  a  cabinet  with  shal- 
low drawers,  made  especially  for  the  drawings. 
Maps,  details  and  all  kinds  of  drawings  can  thus  be 
preserved. 

In    measuring    lines    too     great 

MEASUREMENTS     care  cannot  be  exercised.     Steel 

tapes    graduated  to  hundredths 

of  a  foot  are  the  best  to  use  and  it  would  be  well  to 
send  them  to  Washington,  D.  C.  to  be  tested  by  the 
government,  before  using  them.  It  takes  only  a 
short  time  to  accustom  men  to  using  a  spring  bal- 
ance on  the  end  of  a  tape.  A  common  spring  bal- 
ance can  be  purchased  in  nearly  any  hardware  store 
for  thirty-five  cents  which  serves  excellently.  It  is 
about  nine  inches  long  and  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  writer  uses  also  a  tape  level  (on  which  he  ob- 
tained a  patent  in  1892)  in  nearly  all  his  work.  It 


137 

is  attached  to  the  tape  by  clamp  springs  so  placed 
on  the  bottom  that  a  simple  "twist  of  the  wrist"  at- 
taches the  level  to  the  tape.  Some  engineers  prefer  a 
•level  on  each  end  bnt  one  is  sufficient.  The  level  is 
placed  about  one  foot  away  from  the  end  and  the 
tape  pulled  to  the  proper  tension  and  then  raised  or 
lowered  until  the  bubble  indicates  that  the  ends  are 


at  the  same  height.  After  this  it  is  not  necessary  to 
pay  any  more  attention  to  the  bubble  for  a  man  can 
keep  the  level  thus  ascertained,  easily  enough.  A 
hundred  foot  tape  requires  about  a  sixteen  pound 
pull.  The  bubble  should  be  in  the  middle  of  the 
tube  for  short  distances  of  about  twenty-five  feet  or 
less  and  move  towards  the  hand  for  greater  distances 
(for  allowable  sag)  until  on  a  tape  one  hundred  feet 
long,  with  sixteen  pound  pull  it  is  almost  at  the  end 
of  the  open  space. 

For  measuring  on  streets  with  good  stiff  grades 
and  where  the  tape  has  to  be  used  in  short  lengths 
the  best  method  is  to  use  a  fifty  foot  tape  and  meas- 
ure on  the  slope,  putting  twenty  penny  nails  at  the 
end  of  each  measurement,  i.  e.  at  each  fifty  feet. 
The  tape  should  be  hauled  taut  each  time.  Then 
run  levels  over  the  road  and  read  the  rod  carefully 
at  each  nail.  The  distances  can  be  reduced  to  the 
horizontal  by  using  tables  of  squares  and  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  the  work  not  afterwards  checking 


138 

out.  This  is  a  good  method  for  running  out  a  base 
line  for  initial  surveys  and  for  triangulation  for 
stadia  work,  only  using  instead  of  the  nails,  stakes, 
one  inch  square  chamfered  on  top  and  with  a  small 
tack  at  the  end  of  each  measurement.  A  further 
advantage  in  this  is  that  a  profile  of  the  street  can 
also  be  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  measurement. 
The  stations  will  be  irregular  but  after  the  profile  is 
platted  it  will  cut  little  figure. 

Sometimes,  but  very  seldom,  it  hap- 
STANDAI^D  pens  that  a  city  laid  out  years  ago 
TAPES  was  carefully  surveyed  and  monu- 
merited.  But  trure  is  a  difference  in 
the  measurements  with  measuring  done  at  a  later 
date  and  the  difference  is  constant  and  in  one  direc- 
tion. It  is  not  an  error  but  it  good  judgment  is  not 
used  there  will  be  errors  introduced  by  reason  of 
this  difference.  All  the  lines  should  be  gone  over 
carefully  between  monuments  with  a  standard  tape 
and  the  difference  ascertained.  Then  the  city  should 
have  several  tapes  made  which  will  be  correct  only 
when  applied  to  work  between  the  monuments  but 
of  course  will  differ  from  a  standard  tape  by  the 
amount  of  the  constant  difference  found.  An  ordi- 
nance should  be  passed  forbidding  the  erection  of  a 
building  or  fence  in  the  city  until  the  applicant  for 
the  permit  has  had  the  lot  measured  and  no  one 
should  be  permitted  to  do  the  measuring  but  a 
licensed  city  surveyor  or  an  employe  of  the  city  en- 
gineer's office,  and  it  should  be  done  with  one  of  the 
tapes  made  for  that  purpose. 


139 

In  macadamized  streets  the  best  mater- 
MARKING     ial  for  points,  to    be    used    again,    are 
OF  twenty  penny    wire    nails,    the    heads 

SURVEY  driven  about  one  inch  below  the  sur- 
POINTS  lace  and  referenced  by  measurement  to 
sidewalks,  curbs,  fences  or  buildings. 
In  unpaved  streets  wooden  stakes  one  or  two  inches 
square  with  bevelled  heads  driven  one  inch  below 
the  surface,  will  last  a  long  time.  This  is  of  course 
in  places  where  there  are  no  monuments  or  on  parts 
of  streets  where  it  is  a  long  distance  to  a  monument. 
The  recovery  of  points  is  embarrassing  some- 
times. Marks  on  buildings  and  fences  are  liable  to 
disappear  and  the  engineer  can  hardly  be  too  par- 
ticular. He  should  make  several  ties,  choosing  pre- 
ferably a  brick  or  stone  building  when  he  has  a 
choice.  For  a  point  in  an  earth  street  where  surveys 
are  seldom  made  and  reference  points  are  liable  to 
disappear  quickly  a  good  method  is  to  make  a  ring 
with  a  fifty  foot,  or  twenty-five  foot,  tape  and  on  this 
ring  drive  half  a  dozen  stakes  with  their  tops  flush 
with  the  surface.  Tacks  should  mark  the  exact  dis- 
tance from  the  point  to  be  preserved.  Tie  in  all 
these  points  as  well  as  the  center  and  when  it  is  re- 
quired afterwards  and  the  direct  ties  have  disap- 
peared it  may  be  found  when  any  two  of  the  tie 
stakes  are  found  and  a  measurement  from  each  with 
the  radius  of  the  curve  will  intersect  in  the  proper 
place. 

The  markings  of  buildings  should   be  systematic. 
A  common  way   to    mark  a  line    measurement    is  to 


HO 

drive  three  nails  or  tacks  in  a  vertical  line.  It  is 
understood  that  the  middle  tack  is  the  one  to  meas- 
ure from.  For  elevation  three  or  four  nails  in  a 
horizontai  line  with  one  projecting  slightly  for  the 
level  rod  to  rest  upon  is  a  common  method.  The 
diagrams  in  the  record  books  describing  these  points 
should  be  carefully  drawn.  Transmitted  from  one 
city  engineer  to  another  and  carefully  kept  up  such 
records  are  of  value.  Less  will  be  heard  then  of  the 
disagreement  of  surveyors,  than  is  now  heard  in 
every  small  place. 


These  surveys  are  generally  made  for 
THE  building    purposes.       A    diagram    is 

KESURVEY     given  the  '  party    ordering  the  survey 
OF  and  such  diagram  is  generally  placed 

LOTS  upon  the  letter  paper  of  the  surveyor, 
after  being  recorded  in  his  book  of  lot 
and  street  surveys.  The  diagram  is  not  drawn  to 
scale,  but  shows  all  adjacent,  or  encroaching  im- 
provements, together  with  the  amount  of  the  en- 
croachment or  the  distance  away  of  the  parts  on 
which  the  marks  have  been  placed.  Where  a  tack 
has  been  placed  to  mark  a  line  it  is  indicated  by  the 
word  "tack"  and  the  distance  from  that  point  to  the 
point  defining  the  lot  line,  is  marked  in  red  ink,  the 
diagram  being  in  black.  Elevations  above  or  below 
certain  points  indicated  on  the  diagram,  are  shown 
in  blue. 

In  the  resurvey  of  a  lot  there  are  three  cases  to  be 
considered: 


Hi 

First — There  may  be  a  monument  at  each  end  of 
the  block. 

Second — There  may  be  no  monuments  but  there 
may  be  buildings  already  erected,  supposedly  by 
survey. 

Third — There  may  be  neither  monuments  or 
buildings  but  the  curbs  may  have  been  set. 

In  the  first  case  measure  carefully  from  one  mon- 
ument to  the  other  and  distribute  the  differenre,  if 
any  is  found,  proportionately  between  the  monu- 
ments, unless  it  interferes  with  buildings  already 
erected  of  permanent  material.  In  such  case  if  there 
is  a  surplus  and  your  client  can  be  given  his  land 
without  taking  from  others  make  an  adjustment  and 
note  it  in  your  records.  Your  diagram  can  show 
your  client  he  is  safe  and  your  records  can  keep  your 
successor  from  getting  astray.  It  is  well  to  verify 
the  monument^  occasionally  from  others,  as  they  are 
often  disturbed. 

When  buildings  or  fences  are  in  it  is  common  to 
measure  from  the  nearest,  assuming  it  to  be  correct. 
It  is  a  loose  practice,  but  if  there  is  nothing  to  go  by 
it  is  well  to  verify  from  each  end  of  the  block  the 
correctness  of  the  location  of  the  fence  or  building 
taken  as  a  starting  point.  When  monuments  are 
out  or  have  been  disturbed  it  is  customary,  and 
wisest,  to  treat  each  block  by  itself,  regardless  of 
others.  If  the  measurement  discloses  a  surplus  dis- 
tribute it  proportionately  between  the  points  or 
buildings  disclosing  it  and  if  there  is  a  deficiency  it 
is  generally  safest  to  throw  it  into  the  street  if  not 
great  in  amount.  The  sidewalk  can  stand  it. 


142 

When  curbs  have  been  set  it  is  customary  to  set 
the  transit  on  the  curb  line  and  sight  along  it  as 
far  as  possible  to  get  a  clear  sight.  As  curbs  are 
seldom  out  more  than  an  inch  or  so  and  the  sight 
obtained  may  be  several  hundred  feet  while  the 
depth  of  the  lot  seldom  exceeds  one  hundred  feet,  an 
error  in  the  side  line  from  an  angle  turned  from  the 
curb  will  be  too  small  to  consider.  Most  of  the  lots 
surveyed  in  even  large  cities,  lacking  regulations 
over  this  important  part  of  the  surveyors  business, 
are  surveyed  in  this  manner  and  so  long  as  there  is 
no  grumbling  and  every  man  gets  his  land,  while 
the  city  has  enough  street  width  there  should  be  no 
objection,  provided  careful  records  are  kept. 

The  curb  along  the  front  of  the  lot  gives  the  line. 
The  curbs  at  each  end  of  the  block  are  the  points 
from  which  the  distance  is  measured.  The  width  of 
the  sidewalk  having  been  found  at  each  side  line  of 
the  block  that  distance  is  set  off  from  the  curb  and 
stakes  driven.  The  distance  between  these  stakes 
is  then  measured  and  compared  with  the  official  dis- 
tance. Any  surplus  discovered  is  distributed  as  de- 
scribed above.  If  the  distance  falls  short  each  stake 
is  moved  towards  the  curb  until  the  distance  agrees 
with  the  recorded  distance,  leaving  the  shortage  in 
the  sidewalk.  If  the  former  surveyors  have  meas- 
ured from  each  end  of  the  block  and  the  buildings 
occupy  so  much  space  that  your  client  cannot  get 
his  land,  show  him  the  facts  and  let  the  owners  fight 
it  out. 

The  end  stakes  having  been  adjusted  the  line  is 
then  measured  down  the  block  until  a  point  is 


143 

reached  in  front  of  the  lot  where  a  clear  sight  can  be 
had  to  the  end.  Set  in  a  tack  point  for  the  transit 
and  turn  the  angle.  Measure  across  the  width  of 

•„ 

the  sidewalk  and  set  in  a  stake  for  the  front  line. 
Continue  the  measurement  with  care  to  the  depth  of 
the  lot  (which  it  is  presumed  has  been  ascertained 
by  measuring  on  the  side  lines  of  the  block  as  de- 
scribed for  the  front.)  Set  on  each  stake  and  turn 
the  angle  to  set  the  corner  stakes;  or  mark  the  ad- 
jacent buildings  or  fences,  which  is  preferable  to 
driving  stakes  liable  to  be  disturbed  during  building 
operations.  If  is  not  easy  to  measure  along  the  lot 
lines  it  is  customary  tc  measure  along  the  curb  line 
as  an  offset.  Then  the  marks  for  the  side  lines  in 
front  can  be  placed  on  the  curb.  With  a  wooden 
curb  set  three  nails  in  the  shape  of  an  "L,"  the  nail 
at  the  angle  and  on  the  upright  portion  being  on  the 
line  and  the  other  nail  being  on  the  inside  of  the  lot. 
These  three  points  will  be  shown  on  the  diagram  and 
the  distance  marked  to  the  f rout  line  of  the  lot.  If 
the  curb  is  stone  or  concrete  chisel  an  UL"  on  top. 
If  the  block  to  be  surveyed  is  between  blocks  (not 
necessarily  adjacent  thereto)  having  curbs  or  build- 
ings, it  is  easy  to  carry  the  curb  or  building  lines 
across  these  blocks,  on  all  four  sides.  The  corner 
stakes  thus  found  can  be  adjusted  to  conform  to  the 
dimensions  and  angles  given  on  the  official  plats  and 
the  survey  proceeded  with  as  above  described.  It  is 
well  after  completing  the  survey  to  drive  at  the  block 
corners  four  by  four  posts  with  tops  flush  with  the 
ground  and  having  a  nail  set  in  to  indicate  the  exact 
corner  point.  Future  surveyors  will  then  be  likely 


H4 

to  perpetuate  these  points  by  basing  their  surveys  of 

lots  in  that  block  upon  them. 

If  the  lot  to  be  surveyed  is  in  a  block  not  near  one 
having  curbs  or  buildings,  and  where  there  are  no 
monuments,  the  surveyor  meets  with  problems  he. 
must  settle  for  himself,  according  to  circumstances, 
He  must  proceed  with  all  possible  care  with  the  best 
information  obtainable  and  should  be  chary  about 
discrediting  the  work  of  previous  surveys  and  re-sur- 
veys until  he  has  actual  documentary  evidence  in 
his  possession  which  will  convince  the  most  ignor- 
ant man  that  his  work  is  right,  even  if  it  does  not 
agree  with  some  previous  work. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  "surveying  is  an  art 
and  not  an  exact  science."  This  is  especially  true 
in  cities  and  towns  where  the  data  is  incomplete  and 
yet  the  land  so  valuable  that  every  man  wants  to  get 
possession  of  every  fraction  of  an  inch  he  is  entitled 
to. 

The  judgment  of  the  surveyor  is  frequently  taxed 
and  he  must  reason  from  an  assumed  standpoint  with 
correctness.  It  is  strange  to  say  that  correct  results 
can  be  reached  by  using  hypothetically  correct  start- 
ing points,  but  the  problem  is  simply  to  give  a  man 
his  land  so  he  can  occupy  it.  If  he  gets  a  piece  of 
land  the  size  he  paid  for  and  gets  it  without  inter- 
fering with  the  rights  of  others  and  with  no  dauger 
of  future  interference  who  can  say  the  surveyor  was 
wrong  in  scientifically  (?)  "fudging"  his  work,  so  far 
as  starting  points  are  concerned.  The  measurements 
are  to  be  as  correct  as  it  is  possible  for  a  man  to 


145 

measure,  and  the  builder  has  only  to    do  with    meas- 
urements.    Angles  he  does  not  regard. 

If  cuts  and  fills  on  street    improvement 

SETTING     work    are    considerable    there    will    of 

STAKES      ( ourse  have  to  be  several  sets  of  stakes 

FOR        set. 
WORK  If  the  grading  is    only  a   foot  or    two 

the  best  way  to  set  the  stakes  is  to 
measure  along  the  edge  of  the  sidewalks,  or  along 
the  front  of  buildings,  and  put  in  nails  at  regular  in- 
tervals and  number  them.  Measure  over  and  set  a 
nail  at  each  end  of  the  block  on  the  curb  line.  Set 
the  transit  on  one  end  of  the  block  and  have  a  rod 
held  at  the  other,  on  these  nails  set  to  mark  the  curb 
line.  A  leveling  rod,  reading  to  hundredths  of  a 
foof,  can  be  held  on  each  nail  driven  in  the  fences 
and  buildings  and  horizontally  across  the  curb  line. 
The  engineer  reads  the  rod  and  at  once  obtains  the 
distance  out  from  that  nail  to  the  curb,  which  dis- 
tance he  proceeds  to  record  in  his  book  and  has  his 
rodman  mark  in  lead  pencil,  or  black  crayon  on  the 
building  or  fence  above  the  nail.  After  getting 
these  distances  out  he  proceeds  to  take  the  elevations 
of  each  nail  and  marks  in  blue  above  the  nail  the 
height  it  is  above  the  curb  or  below  the  nail  the  depth 
it  is  below.  A  diagram  is  given  to  the  contractor 
showing  all  this  information.  He  needs  no  more 
stakes  but  proceeds  to  set  his  curbs  first,  then  exca- 
vates for  the  gutters  and  roadway,  sighting  across 
from  curb  to  curb  with  properly  graduated  stakes  to 
get  intermediate  heights  and  for  crowning  the  road- 


14* 

way.  The  nails  are  then  in  position  for  checking  at 
any  time.  Stakes  are  too  easily  knocked  out.  In 
addition  however  to  these  permanent  marks  it  is 
sometimes  well  to  set  stakes  for  subgrade,  the  top  of 
the  stake  being  at  the  proper  elevation. 

For  sewers  it  is  well  to  set  stakes  twenty-five  feet 
apart  on  each  side  of  the  trench  and  six  inches  or  a 
foot  away  from  the  edge.  The  tops  of  the  stakes 
should  be  some  regular  number  of  feet  above  the  bot- 
tom of  the  trench.  This  height  can  be  ascertained 
from  the  profile  so  no  stake  need  project  above  the 
surface  and  yet  none  be  more  than  a  foot  below.  To 
obtain  the  grade  for  the  bottom  and  for  the  sewer 
pipe  a  piece  of  wood  can  be  laid  across  the  trench 
resting  on  the  grade  stakes  and  a  cord  stretched 
tightly  along  the  middle  line  of  the  excavation.  With 
a  rod  graduated  to  hundredths  of  a  foot  the  distances 
can  be  measured  to  any  point  from  this  line  to  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  or  to  the  top  of  the  pipe  in 
place.  It  is  of  course  important  that  the  cord  be 
tightly  stretched  and  that  no  sag  be  in  it.  It  is 
above  the  heads  of  the  workmen  and  out  of  the  way 
more  than  cords  in  the  bottom  and  the  stakes  on  top 
are  preferable  for  many  reasons  to  stakes  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  trench.  It  is  understood  of  course  that 
"circumstances  alter  cases." 

It  is   seldom  that    an    engineer  is   so 
TESTING       situated  in  a  small  country  town  that 
OF  he  can  test  materials  so  he  must    use 

MATERIALS     especial  care  in  drawing  up  his  speci- 
fications.    If  he  can    install    simple 
apparatus  for  testing  the  more  usual  materials  he  is 


H7 

well  off  and  the  town  is  fortunate  to   secure    his   ser- 
vices. 

It  is  possible  for  every  engineer  to  test  cement 
with  low  cost  apparatus.  He  can  use  apparatus 
made  by  himself  which  will  cost  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  five  dollars  or  he  can  put  more  into  it  and 
spend  many  more  dollars  until  he  is  able  to  purchase 
a  standard  testing  machine.  For  the  majority  of 
cases  the  cross  bending  test  of  cement  is  excellent 
and  better  than  the  tensile  test. 

For  this  the  engineer  needs  to  procure  some  sieves 
such  as  assayers  use  and  select  a  bed  of  sand  in  the 
vicinity  to  use  for  cement  testing  Get  some  of  the 
sand  and  thoroughly  cleanse  and  sift  it.  Mix  it 
with  a  quantity  of  cement  in  the  proportions  recom- 
mended for  briquettes  and  make  ten  or  twelve  bars 
exactly  one  inch  square  and  five  inches  long.  Send 
half  of  these  bars  to  the  professor  of  civil  engineer- 
ing in  the  state  university  together  with  enough 
cement  to  make  an  equal  number  of  bars  with  the 
standard  quartz  sand  usually  used,  and  also  to  make 
several  briquettes  for  tensile  test  with  standard 
quartz  sand.  These  briquettes  can  be  tested  and 
also  the  b^rs  to  obtain  the  ratio  between  the  tensile 
and  cross  bending  test.  Then  the  bars  made  by  the 
engineer  should  be  broken  to  compare  his  mixture 
with  the  standard  mixture.  When  he  gets  the  re- 
sults he  can  proceed  to  break  his  own  bars  and  thus 
have  a  standard  of  comparison. 

A  saddle,  or  ring,  for  placing  over  the  bars  can  be 
made  of  quarter  inch  steel  wire  in  the  shape  of  a 
stirrup.  This  is  hung  across  the  middle  of  the  bar 


i48 

with  the  flat  side  on  top  and  the  bar  should  be  sup- 
ported with  a  span  of  exactly  four  inches  On  the 
ring  can  be  suspended  a  bucket  into  which  shot  can 
be  gently  poured  until  the  bar  breaks.  The  bucket 
and  its  contents  weighed  after  the  break  will  give  the 
number  of  pounds  necessary  to  break  the  bar.  So 
all  specifications  can  be  written  to  provide  the  best 
standard  for  a  tensile  test  but  the  tests  can  be  made 
by  cross  bending  and  a  proper  ratio  once  determined 
makes  it  fair.  The  ratio  does  not  have  to  be  deter- 
mined by  sending  samples  to  the  university  every 
time  cement  is  tested. 

A  good  machine  for  testing  cement  by  the  cross 
bending  test  can  be  made  by  any  engineer,  or  man 
handy  with  tools,  for  less  than  ten  dollars  using  a 
butchers  beam  scale  in  combination  with  short  levers 
as  a  part  of  the  machine.  The  moulds  for  the  bars 
are  easily  made  out  of  hardwood  or  metal. 

A  test  for  soundness  of  cement  is  often  used  when 
the  engineer  feels  the  need  of  a  quicker  method  than 
the  cross  bending  or  tensile  test  For  this  nothing 
better  than  the  method  of  Michaelis  has  been  de- 
vised. For  this  take  a  piece  of  glass  with  a  per- 
fectly plane  surface  and  place  on  it  a  piece  of  good 
quality  filter  paper  three  inches  in  diameter.  Upon 
this  mould  a  pat  of  neat  cement  mixed  with  just 
enough  water  which  will  make  it  "wet"  but  not  thin 
enough  to  run.  It  should  be  mixed  very  carefully 
and  thoroughly  and  much  care  taken  to  prevent  the 
leaving  in  it  of  any  cracks  or  blow  holes  or  cavities 
of  any  sort.  When  completed  the  pat  should  be 
three  inches  in  diameter  and  drawn  to  a  fine  hair 


149 

edge  all  around  and  be  about  half  an  inch  thick  in 
the  cencer.  Place  around  it  a  ring  which  will  clear 
it  and  the  top  of  which  will  be  high  enough  to  clear 
the  top  of  the  pat.  Over  this  place  a  moist  cloth 
until  the  pat  has  set  hard  then  place  it  in  water  at 
the  normal  temperature  of  the  office  and  leave  it 
there  for  twenty-four  hours.  Then  place  it  in  a  ves- 
sel of  water  at  about  the  same  temperature  and  bring 
slowly  to  a  boil.  It  should  take  about  half  an  hour 
to  reach  the  boiling  point  and  the  best  thing  for  the 
purpose  is  a  cheap  single  wick  kerosene  stove.  The 
water  should  be  allowed  to  boil  constantly  and 
quietly  (simmering)  for  three  hours  when  the  pat 
should  be  taken  out  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually, 
preferably  by  putting  a  cover  on  the  can  it  was 
boiled  in,  placing  the  pat  on  it,  turning  out  the  flame 
and  leaving  the  pat  there  until  it  is  cool.  Above  all 
things  do  not  attempt  to  cool  it  by  applying  water 
or  any  other  material.  When  the  pat  is  cool  it 
should  be  hard  and  free  from  cracks.  Sometimes 
the  engineer  finds  difficulty  in  making  the  pats  in 
which  case  he  can  mold  balls  one  or  two  inches  in 
diameter  on  the  filter  paper  and  boil  them.  This 
test  is  considered  a  good  one  of  the  soundness  of 
Portland  cement  and  guarantees  its  quality.  It  can- 
not be  used  upon  a  mixture  of  sand  and  cement  and 
is  valueless  for  a  test  of  natural  cements. 


150 


Sometimes  when  erecting  a  structure 
TESTING  for  a  public  use  the  owners  of  quarries 
OF  in  the  neighborhood  bring  in  pieces  of 
STONE  cement  gravel,  clay  and  such  like  ma- 
terial which  they  term  stone  and  wish  it 
used  instead  of  good  stone  in  order  to  advertise  the 
quarry.  Sometimes  in  fact  stone  is  brought  in 
which  is  new  to  the  engineer  and  upon  the  value  of 
which  he  hesitates  to  pass  an  opinion.  Some  ready 
method  of  testing  the  possible  weathering  qualities  is 
needed  and  for  this  the  author  has  frequently  used 
the  Glauber  Salts  process.  For  this  test  make  a 
saturated  solution  of  Glauber  Salts.  This  solution 
must  be  made  in  cold  water  or  at  least  in  water 
which  is  of  a  temperature  less  than  70  or  80  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  In  this  solution  should  be  placed 
pieces  of  the  stone  to  be  tested,  together  with  pieces 
of  a  stone  which  has  been  tried  in  that  locality  by 
years  of  service  and  found  to  be  good.  It  is  well  to 
have  the  pieces  ground  down  to  the  same  shape  and 
size  but  still  that  is  not  of  such  importance  so  long 
as  the  exact  surface  in  square  inches  is  known  of 
each  piece.  The  author  first  dries  the  pieces  thor- 
oughly in  a  drying  oven  and  then  immerses  them 
in  the  solution  at  a  temperature  of  about  70  or  80 
degrees  and  puts  the  vessel  containing  them  on  a 
stove  and  allows  it  to  come  to  a  boil.  It  is  per- 
mitted to  boil  slowly  for  about  half  an  hour  when 
the  specimens  are  taken  out  and  hung  in  the  open 
air  for  twenty-four  hours.  They  are  then  washed 
gently  with  water  from  a  wash  bottle  and  again 


15* 

placed  in  the  solution  and  boiled.  This  is  continued 
for  seven  or  eight  days  when  the  specimens  are 
placed  in  fresh  water  for  twenty  four  hours  at  a  time 
and  the  water  thrown  away  an.d  more  fresh  water 
used.  This  long  soaking  in  fresh  water  which  is 
changed  every  twenty-four  hours  is  continued  for 
another  week  making  the  total  length  of  the  tests 
equal  to  fourteen  or  sixteen  day«.  After  the  soak- 
ing in  fresh  water  has  effectually  removed  all  dried 
salt  by  dissolving  it  the  pieces  are  placed  in  a  dry- 
ing oven  and  dried  thoroughly.  The  difference  in 
weight  before  and  after  the  conclusion  of  the  tests 
taken  in  connection  with  the  surface  area  of  each 
piece  (which  should  hardly  be  more  than  one  cubic 
inch  in  size)  gives  the  percentage  of  loss  in  weight 
per  square  inch  of  surface.  This  is  the  most  ready 
means  of  determination  of  the  value  of  stone  which 
the  author  can  recommend  to  men  who  have  little 
apparatus  and  infrequent  necessity  for  making  such 
tests.  Some  men  in  addition  to  finding  the  weath- 
ering value  of  stones  by  the  above  process  put  the 
stones  through  a  compression  test  after  the  process 
is  completed 


152 


Kvery  engineer  has,  or  should  have, 
ENGINEER'S     a  note  book  in   which    to  jot    down 
NOTE  his    experience    with    different    ma- 

BOOK  terials,  the  solution  of  difficult  ques- 

tions, memoranda  which  he  will  find 
useful  at  some  future  time,  etc.  Such  a  note  book 
grows  and  it  is  difficult  to  index  it  so  matters  can 
be  easily  found.  Therefore  it  is  best  to  use  loose 
sheets.  These  sheets  are  best  when  about  the  size 
of  the  ordinary  pad  of  note  paper  to  be  found  in 
every  stationary  store.  They  can  be  put  into  heavy 
manilla  envelopes  about  seven  by  ten  inches  in  size. 
A  number  of  these  envelopes  can  be  used  and  each 
one  lettered  on  the  side  and  on  one  end  with  the 
subject  which  it  is  supposed  to  contain  exclusively. 
Sewerage,  Water  Supply,  Pavements,  etc.  etc.  The 
sheet  should  have  a  margin  one  inch  wide  at  one 
end  and  one-half  inch  wide  on  the  other  three  edges 
and  both  sides  can  be  used.  Sometimes  the  sheets 
will  be  ruled  writing  paper,  sometimes  plain  drawing 
paper,  sometimes  cross  section  paper,  sometimes 
tracing  paper  and  sometimes  tracing  cloth.  Once 
in  a  while  they  may  be  pages  cut  from  books  or  ar- 
ticles cut  from  papers.  Sometimes  drawings  and 
sometimes  sketches,  most  frequently  memoranda  or 
references  to  pages  and  volumes  of  magazines  or 
papers  in  which  useful  articles  can  be  found.  When 
an  envelope  contains  about  one  hundred  sheets  they 
should  be  bound  in  heavy  mauilla  paper  by  ordinary 
clip  fasteners  and  the  sheets  numbered  and  the 
book  given  a  title  and  number.  Then  all  the  mat- 


153 


ter  in  it  can  be  indexed  in  the  card  index  before    de- 
scribed and  the  book  placed  in  the  pamphlet  library. 


CIUTKS  in-- 
MUNICIPAL  REPORTS 

COVERING  MATTKUS 
DISCUSSED  IN 

MUNICIPAL  PUBLIC  WORKS 

AUK  r.KBATJVY  API 'I-.'  KOI  ATK1)   MY    'I'M  ]•:    AI.'TI 


INDEX 

Page 

Advantage  of  sewage  disposal 58 

Asphalt 20-29 

"         for  wood  blocks 26 

Acetylene  gas 82 

Advertising  for  engineer  95 

American  and  foreign    cities,  growth 109 

Arc  lights,  cost  of 81 

Artesian  wells 68 

Assessment  diagram 131 

Advice   technical,  cost  of 100 

"             "          value  of 97 

Adjusting  linesand  corners 141 

Arguments  against  municipal  ownership Il6 

Bacteria  in  sewage  purification 61 

Base,  city,  for  levels 93 

Bench  marks  93 

Brick  paving 20-32 

Bituminous  rock  pavement ; 21 

Bonds 1 1.8 

Books,  for  city  engineer 122 

"         note,  for  engineers 152 

'•         for  survey  records 134 

Bossism 1 08 

Broad  irrigation  with  sewage 59 

Business  streets "..  40 

Card  index 124 

Cases,  filing 125 

Cast  iron  pipes 76 

Catalogues,  sizes  of 127 

Chain  scraper,  for  sewers 56 

Cement  testing 146 

Certainty  in  surveys  92 

Chemicat  engines 88 

Chemical  precipitation 58 

Cleaning  streets  37 

"         sewers 55 

Cleanliness  of  pavements 21 

Circulation  in  water  mains  73 

Cisterns  for  fire 87 

Cities,  growth  of  American  and  foreign  108 

City  base 93 

Civil  service 108-110 

Coagulent  in  water  filters 65 

Cobbles 10-23 

Combined  sewers 50 

Competition  in  plans  96 

Considerations  to  influence  paving 34 

Connections  with  water  mains 70 

Consulting  engineers  101 

Contour  work  129 

Contracts  94 

"         for  lighting  81 

"         vs.  day  labor 94 


ROAD 
MAKING 

MACH^ERY 

Everything  for  Road  Making 


STEAM  ROAD  ROLLER 


STEAMROLLERS  ROAD  GRADERS 

For  Asphalt,  Brick,  Light  Roads,  etc. 


ROCK  CRUSHER  ON  WHEELS  WITH  I  PORTABLE  ENGINES  FOR 
ELEVATOR  AND  SCREEN.  |  DRIVING  CRUSHERS,  Etc. 


PORTABLE  GASOLINE  ENGINES 


SPRINKLING  WAGONS 


Steam  Road  Rollers,  Horse  Rollers,  Steam  Rollers  for 
Asphalt,  Brick  and  Turf.  Asphalt  machines  and  tools, 
Rock  Crushing  machinery,  Concrete  Mixers,  Engines  and 
Boilers,  Contractors'  Supplies. 


JULIAN  SCROLL  &  CO. 


126  LIBERTY  ST 
NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 


SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE. 


Contractors  and  engineers 101-105 

Control,  municipal 120 

Corners  for  resurveys  90 

"         and  lines 141 

"         of  streets 38 

Corporations,  private  and  public in 

Cost,  items  of. 107-112 

"         of  engineering  in  U.  S 104 

"         of  fire  hose 72 

•|         handling  sewage  58 

"         of  hauling 20 

<(         technical  advice 100 

Crooked  streets 92 

Cross  bending  tests 147 

Councils  to  pay  for   records .' 133 

Court  decisions  on  water  pollution 57 

Curbing 37 

"           urvey  points  in 133 

Day  labor  vs   contracts 94 

Drainrge 48 

Dead  end?  in  pipes 73 

Deficiency  and  surplus I41 

Depths  of  sewers 54 

Design,  good  and  bad 73 

Deterioration  in  plants 81 

Diagrams  for  assessing  cost 131 

"         "         buildine !4° 

•'         "         contours 129 

"         "         stadia  131 

Disagreement  between  surveys  14° 

Disposal  of  sewage  56 

Distribution  of  street  lights  83 

Driven  wells 66 

Domestic  pressure  in  water  mains...' 74 

Double  circulation  "       "         " 73 

Durability  of  pavements 21 

Earth  roads 20 

Examination  of   plans 96 

Expansion  joints  for  wood  paving 27 

Electrolysis 36 

Elevations  on    diagrams 140 

Ends  of  water   mains 73 

Expense,  items  of 112 

Expert,  selection  of 95 

Engineers,  consulting 101 

"         and  contractors 101-105 

"         "       surveyors 98 

"         in  small  places 121 

"         note  book '. 152 

pay  of 102 

Engineering,   cost  of  in  U.  S  IO4 

periodicals 121 

Economy  in  pumping 74 

Europe,  street   lighting  in 84 

Failures  in  city  government 109 

Faulty  surveys 90 

Franchises 120 

"         for  street   railways 35 

Fees  of  engineers , 103 

Fertilizer,  sewage  for 59 

Field  notes  and   records 128 

Filing  cases 125 


NATIONAL  TUBE  Co. 

SPECIAL  STEEL 
LAP  WELDED  PIPE 

Kalameincd  and  Asphalted 
and  Asphalted  Only 

FITTED  WITH  Converse  Patent  Lock  Joint 
THE  LUDLOW  VALVE  MANPG  Co. 

GATE  VALVES  and  FIRE  HYDRANTS 


J9  and  20,  Represented  by  LJQGE  fr    SWIFT 

Ainsworth  Block    '  JTUAJH  QC   OW1     1, 

PORTLAND,  ORE, 

XOTE:      WE  MARK  A  SPECIAL/TV  OF  WATER  WORKS  CONSTRUCTION. 

CORRESPONDENCE    SOLICITED. 


plats 135 

Filtration  of  sewage 

Fire  alarms 84 

'         departments • 84 

'        hose,  cost  of 72 

4         pressures 74 

'         protection  by  tanks 69 

*         regulations 

'         streams 72 

Friction  in  pipes 

Foreign  and  American    cities 109 

Foundations  of  streets 16-24-28 

Flushing  sewers  with  hose 51 

Flush    tanks 52 

Fudging  work 144 

Gas,  cost  of 82 

41         engines  for  pumping 69 

Gasolene  lamps 81 

Gates  and  valves 73 

Glauber  salt  te-t  for   stone 150 

Grades  of  streets 41 

"         on  various   materials 21 

•    "         maximum  and  minimnm 93 

Grade  stakes 145-146 

"         in  sewers 53 

Gravel 20 

"         roads 14 

Gearing  water   meters 71 

General  street   improvement 40 

Government  of  cities 109 

Growth  of  cities 108 

Hauling,  cost  and   loads 20 

Healthtulness  of  wood   paving 29 

Hints  on  measuring 136 

Hose,  cost  of,    fire  72 

House  drainage 55 

Household   niters 65 

Hydrants 73 

"         rental   of 113 

Irrigation  with   sewage 59 

Improving  streets 40 

Improvements,  vote  of  property    owners 12 

Indebtedness,   bonded '. 118 

*Index,  card 124 

Indexing  notes  of  engineers , 152 

Inspection  of  material 94 

Intersections  of  streets 93 

Insurance   rates 72 

Issue  of  bonds 118 

Kerosene  lamps 81 

Labor,  employment   of 94 

Lamps  for  street  lighting 81 

Land  subdivision  in    cities 93 

Law  and  practice  in  surveys * 133 

Levels  on  tapes 136 

Library,  pamphlet 124 

Lighting  streets,  cost  of 80 

Lights,  distribution  of 83 

"         vs.  police 84 

Loads  on  grades 43 

Local  considerations  in  paving 12-34 

Location  of  pipes  and  sewers 36 


•  • 

•  • 


"O    O    «^ 

C    "*"    cJ^ 

a|f 

5ig 

=  0.0. 


05    :  fife 
PH     •  ^ 


U 


I    30r3 
I     I  "I 


U    <J    *>/) 

-§a| 

3* 


5    -o 


W 


p  «»s  a 


o 


3          i 
05       -j~ 

•"  O 

o 
o 

w 


Lot  surveys ........ — ...... — ........ *...»....%.-....., »«^«.  14° 

Macadam^ 15-16-20-22 

Mains,  water,  size  of . » 72 

Maintenance  of   streets 35 

Marking  survey    points ./, 139 

Marks,  benches  for  levels... 93 

Material,  furnishing  of ..  94 

"         low  and  high  cost... » »«•>»»•  I![ 

"         paving .. *..».............,.  12-20 

"         for  pipes . 76 

Measurements,  hints  on .... .. 136 

Method  of  sewage   disposal .. »»• .  58-64 

Meters,  value  of 70 

Michaelis'  test  for  cement v •.. 148 

Monuments,  govern  distances '. > v  91 

"         description  of 132 

tied  in ..  133 

Municipal  control 120 

"         ownership 107 

"         "         of  water .  79 

"         "         arguments  against 116 

Nails  in  curb  for  lines 133 

Nicholson    pavement 26 

Note  book  for  engineers , 152 

Notes  of  work ........  128 

Oil  engines  for  pumping 69 

Old  plants,  valuation  of 114 

Openings  in  macadam 16 

Ordinance  for  plumbing 55 

Original  Hues  of  surveys , 90 

Ownership,  municipal ..  107 

Pamphlet  library ..  124 

Pay  of  engineers 102 

Payment  for   records 133 

Pavement,  best  is  cheapest .............v  it 

"         general    considerations 19-20-21 

'•         Nicholson 26 

Paving  materials  (see  material  wanted.)... 

Placing  of  street   lights 83 

Plane  of  reference  for  levels ; ; 93 

Plans  95,  and  specifications 128 

Plants,  value  of  old , . 114 

Plats,  best  for  record 128 

"         filing  of 135 

"         for  study  of  lines 133 

Practice  and  theory 99 

Percentage  on  cost  of  work  as  fee 103 

Periodicals,  engineering 121 

Precipitation,  chemical 58 

Pressure  in  mains 74 

Pipes,  friction  in 72 

"         in  streets ,  36 

Private  sewers >. 50 

Points  for  surveys 133-139 

Police  vs.  lights 84 

Politics  in   cities 108-110 

Pollution  of  water  supply 56 

Profiles ". 135-138 

Plumbing   inspectors 71 

"         ordinance 54 

Pumping,  economy  in 74 

<4         plants...... 67-68 


ESTABLISHED  1871  BOSTON.  MASS..  U.  S.  A. 

C.  L.  BERGER  &  SONS 

SUCCESSORS  TO   BUFF  <5c   BERGER 

Precise  Surveying  and  Engineering  Instruments. 


Surveving  and  Engineering  Instruments  adapted  to  all  Field  Work  in  all  climates- 
Special  features:  Fine  Finish,  Accurate  Graduations,  Powerful  Telescopes  Precise  Levels, 
True  Adjustment?,  Largest  Variety,  Equitable  Prices. 

ILLUSTRATED  CATALOGUE  AND  MANUAL  ON  APPLICATION. 

TRANSITS  AND  LEVELS 
ARE  USED  IN  ALL  THE 
PACIFIC  COAST  STATES 
AND  ARE  THE  STANDARD 


J.  C.  SALA 


SUCCESSOR  To  JOHN  ROACH. 

Established  in  New  York  City  1834      Established  in  San  Francisco,  1855 

SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE  CON- 
TAINING VALUABLE  TABLES 
AND  SPECIAL  PROFESSIONAL 
PAPERS  ......  :  ............................ 

429   Montgomery  St.,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

Transits,  Levels,  Current   Meters,   all   kinds.      Mine   Transits,    with  or 

without  D.  D.  Scott's   Auxiliary   Interchangeable   Telescope  for 

Top  and  Side,  (Buff&  Berger  style)  a   specialty.     Steel 

Tapes  and  Band  Chains,  all  styles  and  lengths. 

Tape  Reels,  wood  and  metal  ,  Level  Rods, 

Poles,  Pins  and  Bobs,  Hook    Gauges, 

Anemometers,     Improved    Plan 

Meters,  Etc.,  Etc.,    Etc. 

C.  G:  LEDDER 

Formerly  with  Buff  &  Berger  and  Keuffell  A  Esser  Co. 

PERSONAL  ATTENTION  GIVEN  TO 
REPAIRING  AND  MAKING  OF  IN- 
STRUMENTS. "Promptness,  despatch 
and  accuracy"  my  motto.  Prices  moderate. 

302  Washington  Street,  -    -    -     BOSTON,  MASS. 


Purity  of  water . 63 

Quantity  of  water  required 69 

Rails,  street  car  lines 35 

Ram  in  water  mains 73 

Rates,  insurance 72 

"  water 78-114 

Record  books 134 

"  of  surveys 9°~93 

Records  of  work 121-128 

Reference  plane  for  levels 93 

"  marks  for  monuments 133 

Refuse  in  streets 37 

Rental  of  hydrants 113 

Repairs  on  streets 35~45 

Repairs  on  water  mains 73 

Report  on  plans 96 

Reservoirs,  covered  and  open........: 67 

Residence  streets '. 41 

Resurveys 90 

"  of  lots 140 

Rock,  bituminous  31 

Rollers  for  streets 19 

Roman  water  works in 

Salt  water  for  streets 68 

Sand  nitration 64 

Sanitary  sewers 50 

Scraping  sewers 55 

Stadia  surveys 131 

Stakes  on  original  surveys 90 

"     "         street   work 145 

"  "  sewers •. 146 

Stand  pipes 67 

Standard  tapes 138 

Separate  sewers 50 

Separation  of  sewage 58 

Septic  tank 60 

Sewage  disposal 56 

Sewerage 49 

Sewers,  grade  stakes  for 146 

"         pipe  on  water  works 78 

"        cleaning  of 55 

"  in  general 50 

Setting  stakes  for  street  work 145 

Specifications 94 

Streams  on  fire 72 

Streets,  car  lines  on •. 35 

cleaning 37 

cost  of  poor 46 

drainage  of. 42 

intersections  on 93 

lamps  for 81 

openings  in  macadam 16 

refuse  on 37 

repairs  on 17 

setting  stakes  for  work  on 145 

Sidewalks 39 

Sixteen  candle  power  light 82 

Sizes  of  catalogues 127 

"  water  mains 72 

Slippery  pavements 20 

Spring  balance  for  tapes 136 

Sprinkling  wooden  blocks 28 


M'CULLOUGH  TAPE  LEVEL 


PATENTED  JULY  26.  1892. 


WEIGHT  ONE  OUNCE.  INSURES 
ACCURACY  IN  TAPE  MEASURE- 
MENTS. ENDORSED  BY  ENGI- 
NEERS GENERALLY... 


PRICE  $LOO 


Sold  by  J.  C.  Sala,  A.  C.  Leitz  Co.,  H.  S,  CroKer  Co..  Edward  Denny  & 

Co.,  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  A.  S.  Aloe  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.; 

C.  L.  Berger  and  Sons,  C.  C.   Ledder, 

Boston,  Mass. 


ORGANIZED  1882  INCORPORATED  1891 

OFFICERS— D.  McAlister,  President;  R.  M.   Downie,   Secretary;   R.   G.    Forbes,   Treasurer. 
DIRECTORS— D.  McAlister,  R.  M.  Downie,  H.  H.  George,   J.  G.   Downie,   J.   D.   McAnlis. 


Capital  Stock  $!5o,ooo 

Keystone 

Driller 

Company 

BEAVER   FALLS,  PA- 


FOR  WATER  WELLS,  OIL  WELLS,  GAS  WELLS,  Making 
Soundings  for  Bridge  Piers,  prospecting  for  iron  ore,  lead  and  zinc,  and 
TESTING  PLACER  GROUND,  BURIED  RIVERS  AND  OLD 
LAKE  BEDS,  or  drilling  deep  test  holes  in  any  formation — gravel, 
boulders  and  rock.  Drives  5  to  12  inch  pipe,  drills  holes  that  size  in 
rock  and  produces  at  the  surface  everything  found.  Can  be  used  on 
boat  to  explore  river  beds  to  bedrock.  Water  no  hindrance.  Drills 
water  and  oil  wells  quickly,  cheaply  and  without  skilled  labor.  Each 
outfit  complete.  Made  for  any  depth  up  to  1,500  feet.  Set  up  in  an 
hour  and  operated  by  ordinary  workmen.  Made  both  to  be  moved  with 
horses  and,  also,  self-moving  Unexcelled  for  lead  and  zinc  testing. 
Multitudes  in  use  in  United  States,  Mexico,  New  Zealand,  China,  Siberia 
and  South  America.  KEYSTONE  DRILLER  CO.,  Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 


Stingy  lot  owners 93 

Soundness  of  cement 148 

Shortage  on    survey 142 

Stone  block  pavements 20-24 

"         testing 150 

Sludge  of  sewage 59 

Subdivision  of   land 93 

Suffrage 109 

Supervision,    competent 30 

Surplus  and   deficiency 141 

Surface  waters  in  reservoirs 67 

Surveyors  and  engineers 98 

Surveying  lots 140 

Surveying  an  art 144 

Tanks.\ 67-69-75 

"         flushing,  for  sewers 52 

Tapes  and  levels 136 

"         standard 138 

"         testing 136 

Taxation 81-113 

"         in  cities  with  poor  streets 47 

Telford  pavement 16 

Tensile  tests 147 

Theory  and  practice 99 

Testing  cement 146 

"         stone 150 

"         tapes 136 

Ties  for  survey   points 139 

Topography 129 

Trolley  lines 36 

Uncertain  surveys 92 

Underground  waters  in  reservoirs 67 

Value  of  old  plants 114 

street  lighting ...  84 

technical  advice 97 

Valves  and  gates 73 

Voters  in  cities , 109 

Water  filtration 64 

meters 70 

pipe  connections 70 

quantity  of . . . : 69 

ram 73 

rates 78-114 

supply 63 

uses  of 63 

waste 69 

works  design,  good  and  bad 73 

Wells  for  water  supply 57-66-68 

Widths  of  streets 93 

Wood  paving 25 

Wooden  pipe 77 

Work  in  cities 104 

"         on  streets,  setting  stakes  for 145 

Wrought  iron   pipes 77 


l\e  Expert  Engirt 


44^1-Ilv  vocation  of  llu  consulting  eng  tieei  become  firmly  re 

^     nized  as  a  true  profession,  and  in  this   line   of  work   there 
'     :  ly  !;v'  ising  demand  for  the  young,    pell  educated  man. 

• '•'••'•'     I ienl    si          :   -•    *  rt  some  one  who  has  made  a  sp< 


designs  forwork  with  which  he  is  nol  familiar,  he  is  sun    I      fa  t,     .-.. 
alv  ,    s  tpkes  many  successes  to  balance  one  failure.     It  may  then- 
assumed  that  an  <"   ,    :   ej,  of  good  reputation  ma]     sal    ..   \  /joyed  a: 

an  exnert. 

"At  times  the  client  is  placed  upon  the  horn    of  a  dilemma  ani    I        sil 

nation  is  often  v-er^  i  omples       :'  fan    i  alls  fo    ':  id      i      com  ra<  t<  re1  I 

-  •        •  ~  ~     *          '        '      '         '  ; 

;:  :    prices,     •  well  as  the  plans,  will  be  found   to   differ   so  widely 
make  a  sel  Action       th<    best  for  the  least  expense  a  very  difficult   matter 
If  he  have  an  expert  prepan    plans  ind  vacations,  then    all  bids 

directly  comparable,  and  practice  bas  ;  ro       !  time  and    time 
on  account  of  the  inon  din       i         jetition  between   the   bidders,    the  re 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


T933 


JUia8l990 


LD21-100m-7,'33 


YC  ?338C 


